Devanchal Body and Mind Clinic

Psychology Glossary

Psychology Glossary

 

A

• Absolute refractory period

  The period during which a neuron lies dormant after an action potential has been completed.

• Absolute threshold

  The minimum amount of stimulation needed for a person to detect the stimulus 50 percent of the time.

• Accommodation

  The process by which the shape of an eye’s lens adjusts to focus light from objects nearby or far away. Also: the modification of a schema as new information is incorporated.

• Acetylcholine

  A neurotransmitter involved in muscle movement, attention, arousal, memory, and emotion.

• Achievement motive

  An impulse to master challenges and reach a high standard of excellence.

• Achievement tests

  An assessment that measures skills and knowledge that people have already learned.

• Acronym

  A word made out of the first letters of several words.

• Acrostic

  A sentence or phrase in which each word begins with a letter that acts as a memory cue.

• Action potential

  A short-lived change in electric charge inside a neuron.

• Activation-synthesis theory

  A theory proposing that neurons in the brain activate randomly during REM sleep.

• Active listening

  A feature of client-centered th erapy that involves empathetic listening, by which the therapist echoes, restates, and clarifies what the client says.

• Adaptation

  An inherited characteristic that increases in a population because it provides a survival or reproductive advantage.

• Adaptive behaviors

  Behaviors that increase reproductive success.

• Additive strategy

  The process of listing the attributes of each element of a decision, weighing them according to importance, adding them up, and determining which one is more appealing based on the result.

• Adoption studies

  Studies in which researchers examine trait similarities between adopted children and their biological and adoptive parents to figure out whether that trait might be inherited.

• Adrenal cortex

  The outer part of the adrenal glands, which secretes corticosteroids.

• Adrenal medulla

  The inner part of the adrenal glands, which secretes catecholamines.

• Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

  A hormone released by the pituitary gland that stimulates release of corticosteroids from the adrenal cortex.

• Afferent nerves

  Bundles of axons that carry information from muscles and sense organs to the central nervous system.

• Afterimage

  A color we perceive after another color is removed.

• Age of viability

  The point at which a fetus has some chance of surviving outside the mother if born prematurely.

• Agonists

  Chemicals that mimic the action of a particular neurotransmitter.

• Agoraphobia

  A disorder involving anxiety about situations from which escape would be difficult or embarrassing or places where there might be no help if a panic attack occurred.

• Algorithm

  A step-by-step procedure that is guaranteed to solve a problem.

• All-or-none law

  States that neurons fire to generate an action potential only if stimulation reaches a minimum threshold.

• Alpha waves

  Type of brain waves present when a person is very relaxed or meditating.

• Alternate-forms reliability

  The ability of a test to produce the same results when two different versions of it are given to the same group of people.

• Ambiguous language

  Language that can be understood in several ways.

• Amplitude

  The height of a wave.

• Amygdala

  A part of the limbic system of the brain that is involved in regulating aggression and emotions, particularly fear.

• Animism

  The belief that inanimate objects are alive.

• Anorexia nervosa

  A disorder characterized by refusal to maintain a body weight in the normal range, intense fear about gaining weight, and highly distorted body image.

• Antagonists

  Chemicals that block the action of a particular neurotransmitter.

• Anterograde amnesia

  An inability to remember events that occurred after a brain injury or traumatic event.

• Antisocial personality disorder

  A disorder characterized by a lack of conscience and lack of respect for other people’s rights, feelings, and needs, beginning by age fifteen.

• Appraisal

  The process of evaluating an environmental challenge to determine whether resources are available for dealing with it.

• Approach-approach conflict

  A conflict between two desirable alternatives.

• Approach-avoidance conflict

  A conflict that arises when a situation has both positive and negative features.

• Aptitude tests

  An assessment that predicts people’s future ability to acquire skills or knowledge.

• Archetypes

  Images or thoughts that have the same meaning for all human beings.

• Assimilation

  The broadening of an existing schema to include new information.

• Atherosclerosis

  Hardening of arteries because of cholesterol deposits.

• Attachment

  The close bond between babies and their caregivers.

• Attachment styles

  Types of attachment, which include secure attachment, anxious-ambivalent attachment, and avoidant attachment.

• Attitudes

  Evaluations people make about objects, ideas, events, or other people.

• Attributions

  Inferences people make about the causes of events and behavior.

• Atypical antipsychotic drugs

  A new class of antipsychotic drugs that are effective for treating negative and positive symptoms of schizophrenia. They target the neurotransmitters serotonin and dopamine.

• Auditory nerve

  A nerve that sends impulses from the ear to the brain.

• Automatic thoughts

  Self-defeating judgments people make about themselves.

• Autonomic nervous system

  The part of the peripheral nervous system connected to the heart, blood vessels, glands, and smooth muscles.

• Availability heuristic

  A rule-of-thumb strategy in which people estimate probability based on how quickly they remember relevant instances of an event.

• Avoidance-avoidance conflict

  A conflict that arises when a choice must be made between two undesirable alternatives.

• Avoidant personality disorder

  A disorder involving social withdrawal, low self-esteem, and extreme sensitivity to being evaluated negatively.

• Aversion therapy

  A therapy in which a stimulus that evokes an unpleasant response is paired with a stimulus that evokes a maladaptive behavior.

• Axon

  A fiber that extends from a neuron and sends signals to other neurons.

B

• Babbling

  A producton of sounds that resemble many different languages.

• Basal metabolic rate

  The rate at which energy is used when a person is at complete rest.

• Basilar membrane

  A membrane in the inner ear that runs along the length of the cochlea.

• Behavior genetics

  The study of behavior and personality differences among people.

• Behavior therapies

  Treatments involving complex conversations between therapists and clients that are aimed at directly influencing maladaptive behaviors through the use of learning principles.

• Belief perseverance

  The process of rejecting evidence that refutes one’s beliefs.

• Benzodiazepines

  A class of antianxiety drugs. They are also called tranquilizers.

• Beta waves

  The type of brain waves present when a person is awake and alert.

• Bias

  The distortion of results by a variable that is not part of the hypothesis.

• Big Five

  Five basic personality traits from which other traits are derived. They include neuroticism, extraversion, openness to experience, agreeableness, and conscientiousness.

• Binocular cues

  Depth perception cues that require both eyes.

• Biological rhythms

  Periodic physiological changes.

• Biomedical therapies

  Treatments that involve efforts to directly alter biological functioning through medication, electric shocks, or surgery.

• Biopsychosocial model of illness

  The idea that physical illness is the result of a complicated interaction among biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors.

• Bipolar disorders

  Disorders in which people alternate between periods of depression and mania.

• Blood-brain barrier

  A membrane that lets some substances from the blood into the brain but keeps out others.

• Borderline personality disorder

  A disorder characterized by impulsive behavior and unstable relationships, emotions, and self-image.

• Brain

  The main organ in the nervous system.

• Brain waves

  Tracings that show the electrical activity of the brain.

• Broca’s area

  A part of the brain, in the left frontal lobe, that is involved in speech production.

• Bulimia nervosa

  A disorder involving binge eating followed by compensatory behaviors such as vomiting, fasting, excessive exercise, or use of laxatives, diuretics, and other medications to control body weight.

• Bystander effect

  The tendency of people to be less likely to offer help to someone who needs it if other people are also present.

C

• Cannon-Bard theory

  The idea that the experience of emotion happens at the same time that physiological arousal happens.

• Case study

  A research method in which an individual subject is studied in depth.

• Castration anxiety

  The fear a male child has that his father will cut off his penis for desiring his mother.

• Catatonic type

  A subtype of schizophrenia characterized by unnatural movement patterns such as rigid, unmoving posture or continual, purposeless movements, or by unnatural speech patterns such as absence of speech or parroting of other people’s speech.

• Catecholamines

  Hormones released by the adrenal medulla in response to stress.

• Catharsis

  The release of tension that results when repressed thoughts or memories move into a patient’s conscious mind.

• Central nervous system

  The part of the nervous system that includes the brain and the spinal cord.

• Centration

  The tendency to focus on one aspect of a problem and ignore other key aspects.

• Cerebellum

  A part of the hindbrain that controls balance and coordination of movement.

• Cerebrospinal fluid

  The fluid that cushions and nourishes the brain.

• Cerebrum

  The largest part of the brain, involved in abstract thought and learning.

• Chromosomes

  Thin strands of DNA that contain genes.

• Chunking

  The process of combining small bits of information into bigger, familiar pieces.

• Cilia

  Hair cells that are embedded in the basilar membrane of the ear.

• Cingulotomy

  A surgical procedure that involves destruction of part of the frontal lobes. It is sometimes done to treat severe disorders that do not respond to other treatments.

• Circadian rhythms

  Biological cycles that occur about every twenty-four hours.

• Classical conditioning

  A type of learning in which a subject comes to respond to a neutral stimulus as he would to another stimulus by learning to associate the two stimuli. It can also be called respondent conditioning or Pavlovian conditioning.

• Client-centered therapy

  A humanistic therapy, developed by Carl Rogers, that aims to help clients increase self-acceptance and personal growth by providing a supportive emotional environment.

• Closure

  The tendency to interpret familiar, incomplete forms as complete by filling in gaps.

• Cochlea

  A coiled tunnel in the inner ear that is filled with fluid.

• Cognition

  Thinking. It involves mental activities such as understanding, problem solving, decision making, and creativity.

• Cognitive appraisal

  The idea that people’s experience of emotion depends on the way they appraise or evaluate the events around them.

• Cognitive development

  The development of thinking capacity.

• Cognitive dissonance

  An unpleasant state of tension that arises when a person has related cognitions that conflict with one another.

• Cognitive schema

  A mental model of some aspect of the world.

• Cognitive therapies

  Therapies aimed at identifying and changing maladaptive thinking patterns that can result in negative emotions and dysfunctional behavior.

• Collective unconscious

  The part of our minds, according to Carl Jung, that contains universal memories of our common human past.

• Color blindness

  A hereditary condition that makes people unable to distinguish between colors.

• Commitment

  The intent to continue a romantic relationship even in the face of difficulties.

• Community mental health movement

  A movement that advocates treating people with psychological problems in their own communities, providing outpatient treatment, and preventing psychological disorders.

• Compassionate love

  Warmth, trust, and tolerance of a person with whom one is romantically involved.

• Compensation

  According to Alfred Adler, the process of striving to get rid of normal feelings of inferiority.

• Complexity

  The range of wavelengths in light.

• Componential intelligence

  The ability assessed by intelligence tests.

• Compulsions

  Repetitive behaviors that help to prevent or relieve anxiety.

• Computerized tomography (CT)

  A method for studying the brain that involves taking x-rays of the brain from different angles.

• Concept

  A mental category that groups similar objects, events, qualities, or actions.

• Concordance rate

  The percentage of both people in a pair having a certain trait or disorder.

• Conditioned response

  In classical and operant conditioning, a response that resembles an unconditioned response, achieved by pairing a conditioned stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus.

• Conditioned stimulus

  In classical conditioning, a neutral stimulus that comes to evoke a response similar to an unconditioned response through pairing with an unconditioned stimulus.

• Cones

  Photoreceptor cells in the retina that allow people to see in color.

• Confabulation

  A phenomenon in which a person thinks he or she remembers something that did not really happen.

• Confirmation bias

  The tendency to look for and accept evidence that supports what one wants to believe and to ignore or reject evidence that refutes those beliefs.

• Conflict

  The experience of having two or more incompatible desires or motives.

• Conformity

  The process of giving in to real or imagined pressure from a group.

• Congruence

  According to Carl Rogers, the accurate match between self-concept and reality.

• Conscious

  The part of the mind that contains all the information that a person is paying attention to at a particular time.

• Consciousness

  The awareness people have of themselves and the environment around them.

• Conservation

  The ability to recognize that measurable physical characteristics of objects can be the same even when objects look different.

• Consolidation

  Transfer of information into long-term memory.

• Contact comfort

  Comfort derived from physical closeness with a caregiver.

• Contact hypothesis

  A hyposthesis stating that prejudice declines when people in an ingroup become more familiar with the customs, norms, food, music, and attitudes of people in an outgroup.

• Content validity

  A test’s ability to measure all the important aspects of the characteristic being measured.

• Contextual intelligence

  The ability to function effectively in daily situations.

• Continuity

  The tendency to perceive interrupted lines and patterns as being continuous by filling in gaps.

• Continuous reinforcement

  A reinforcement schedule in which reinforcement happens every time a particular response occurs.

• Control group

  A group of subjects in an experiment that receives the same treatment and is treated exactly like the experimental group, except with respect to the independent variable.

• Convergence

  The turning inward of eyes when an object is viewed close up.

• Convergent thinking

  A style of thinking in which a person narrows down a list of possibilities to arrive at a single right answer.

• Conversion disorder

  A disorder characterized by medically unexplained symptoms that affect voluntary motor functioning or sensory functioning.

• Coping

  Efforts to manage stress.

• Cornea

  The transparent outer membrane of the eye.

• Corpus callosum

  A band of fibers that divides the cerebrum into two halves.

• Correlation coefficient

  A measurement that indicates the strength of the relationship between two variables. In a positive correlation, one variable increases as the other increases. In a negative correlation, one variable decreases as the other increases.

• Correlational research method

  A research method that provides information about the relationship between variables. It is also called a descriptive research method.

• Corticosteroids

  Hormones released by the adrenal cortex in response to stress.

• Couples therapy

  A type of therapy in which a therapist helps couples identify and resolve conflicts.

• Creativity

  The ability to generate novel, useful ideas.

• Criterion validity

  A test’s ability to predict another criterion of the characteristic being measured.

• Crystallized intelligence

  Intelligence based on the knowledge and skills accumulated over the life span.

• Culture-bound disorders

  Psychological disorders that are limited to specific cultural contexts.

D

• Dark adaptation

  The process by which receptor cells become more sensitive to light.

• Decay theory

  A theory stating that memory traces fade with time.

• Decentration

  The ability to focus simultaneously on several aspects of a problem.

• Decision-making

  The process of weighing alternatives and choosing among them.

• Declarative memory

  The remembering of factual information. Declarative memory is usually considered explicit.

• Deductive reasoning

  The process by which a particular conclusion is drawn from a set of general premises or statements.

• Defense mechanisms

  Behaviors that protect people from anxiety.

• Deindividuation

  The tendency of people in a large, arousing, anonymous group to lose inhibitions, sense of responsibility, and self-consciousness.

• Deinstitutionalization

  The trend toward providing treatment through community-based outpatient clinics rather than inpatient hospitals.

• Delta waves

  The type of brain waves present when a person is deeply asleep.

• Delusions

  False beliefs that are held strongly despite contradictory evidence.

• Dementia

  A condition characterized by several significant psychological deficits.

• Dendrite

  A fiber that extends from a neuron. It received signals from other neurons and sends them toward the cell body.

• Dendritic trees

  Highly branched fibers extending from neurons.

• Denial

  A defense mechanism that involves refusing to acknowledge something that is obvious to others.

• Dependent variable

  The variable that is observed in an experiment and that may be affected by manipulations of the independent variable.

• Descriptive statistics

  Numbers that researchers use to describe their data so it can be organized and summarized.

• Development

  The series of age-related changes that occurs over the course of a person’s life span.

• Developmental norms

  The median ages at which children develop specific behaviors and abilities.

• Diabetes

  A condition caused by a deficiency of insulin.

• Diagnosis

  The process of distinguishing among disorders.

• Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM)

  A reference book used by psychologists and psychiatrists to diagnose psychological disorders.

• Dialectical reasoning

  A process of going back and forth between opposing points of view in order to come up with a satisfactory solution to a problem.

• Dichromat

  A person who is sensitive to only two of the three wavelengths of light.

• Difference threshold

  The smallest difference in stimulation that is detectable 50 percent of the time. This threshold is also called the just noticeable difference, or jnd.

• Diffusion of responsibility

  The tendency for an individual to feel less responsible in the presence of others because responsibility is distributed among all the people present.

• Discriminative stimulus

  In operant conditioning, a cue that indicates the kind of consequence that’s likely to occur after a response.

• Disease model of addiction

  The idea that addiction is a disease that has to be medically treated.

• Disorganized type

  A subtype of schizophrenia characterized by disorganized behavior, disorganized speech, and emotional flatness or inappropriateness.

• Displacement

  A defense mechanism that involves transferring feelings about a person or event to someone or something else.

• Display rules

  Norms that tell people whether, which, how, and when emotions should be displayed.

• Dissociative amnesia

  A disorder characterized by an inability to remember extensive, important personal information, usually about something traumatic or painful.

• Dissociative disorders

  Disorders characterized by disturbances in consciousness, memory, identity, and perception.

• Dissociative fugue

  A disorder in which a person suddenly and unexpectedly leaves home, fails to remember the past, and becomes confused about his or her identity.

• Dissociative identity disorder

  A disorder in which a person fails to remember important personal information and has two or more identities or personality states that control behavior. It is also called multiple personality disorder.

• Dissonance theory

  A theory that proposes that people change their attitudes when they have attitudes that are inconsistent with one another.

• Distributed practice

  The practice of learning material in short sessions over a long period. It is also called the spacing effect.

• Divergent thinking

  A style of thinking in which people’s thoughts go off in different directions as they try to generate many different solutions to a problem.

• Dopamine

  A neurotransmitter involved in voluntary movement, learning, memory, and emotion.

• Double-blind

  A procedure in which neither the subjects nor the experimenter knows which subjects belong to the experimental and control groups.

• Drive reduction theories of motivation

  Ideas that suggest people act in order to reduce needs and maintain a constant physiological state.

• Drug therapy

  Treatment that involves the use of medications. It is also called pharmacotherapy.

• Dysthymic disorder

  A disorder involving depressed mood on a majority of days for at least two years.

E

• Eating disorders

  Disorders characterized by problematic eating patterns, extreme concerns about body weight, and inappropriate behaviors aimed at controlling body weight.

• Echoic memory

  Auditory sensory memory.

• Efferent nerves

  Bundles of axons that carry information from the central nervous system to muscles and sense organs.

• Ego

  The component of the personality that manages the conflict among the id, the superego, and the constraints of the real world.

• Egocentrism

  The inability to take someone else’s point of view.

• Elaboration

  A type of deep processing in which information being learned is associated with other meaningful material.

• Elaboration likelihood model

  The idea that changes to attitudes tend to be longer lasting when people think about the content of persuasive messages they receive.

• Electric stimulation of the brain

  An invasive method of studying the brain, in which an implanted electrode activates a particular brain structure.

• Electrocardiograph (EKG)

  An instrument that records the activity of the heart.

• Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)

  A biomedical treatment that uses electrical shocks to treat severe depression.

• Electroencephalograph (EEG)

  A device that records the overall electrical activity of the brain, via electrodes placed on the scalp.

• Electromyograph (EMG)

  An instrument that records muscle activity.

• Electrooculograph (EOG)

  An instrument that records eye movements.

• Elimination by aspects

  The process of eliminating alternatives in a decision based on whether they do or do not possess aspects or attributes the decision maker has deemed necessary or desirable.

• Embryo

  A ball of cells that develops during the embryonic stage.

• Embryonic stage

  The period that begins two weeks after conception and ends two months after conception.

• Emotion

  A complex, subjective experience that is accompanied by biological and behavioral changes.

• Emotion work

  The process of acting out of an emotion that is not really felt.

• Emotional intelligence

  An ability that helps people perceive, express, understand, and regulate emotions.

• Empirically validated treatments

  Treatments that are shown by research to be more effective for a particular problem than a placebo or no treatment.

• Empty nest

  The time in parents’ lives when their children have grown up and moved away from home.

• Encoding

  The process of putting information into memory.

• Endocrine system

  A network of tissues that allows the body to communicate via hormones.

• Endogenous biological rhythms

  Biological cycles that originate from inside the body rather than depend on cues from the environment.

• Endorphins

  A group of neurotransmitters involved in pain relief, pleasure, and modulating the action of other neurotransmitters.

• Episodic memory

  The remembering of personal facts.

• Ethics

  A system of moral values.

• Etiology

  The cause or origin of a disorder.

• Evolution

  A change in the frequency of genes in a population.

• Excitatory postsynaptic potential

  A positive change in voltage that occurs when a neurotransmitter binds to an excitatory receptor site.

• Existential therapies

  Therapies aimed at helping clients find meaning in their lives.

• Expected value

  The process of adding the value of a win times the probability of a win to the value of a loss times the probability of a loss in order to make a decision.

• Experiential intelligence

  The ability to adapt to new situations and produce new ideas.

• Experiment

  A research method that provides information about causal relationships between variables.

• Experimental group

  A group of subjects in an experiment for whom the independent variable is manipulated.

• Experimenter bias

  A source of error that arises when researchers’ preferences or expectations influence the outcome of research.

• Explicit attitudes

  Conscious beliefs that can guide decisions and behavior.

• Explicit memory

  Conscious, intentional remembering of information.

• Exposure therapies

  Therapies that aim to eliminate anxiety responses by having clients face real or imagined versions of feared stimuli.

• Expressive language

  The ability to use language to communicate.

• External attribution

  An inference that a person’s behavior is due to situational factors. It is also called situational attribution.

• External locus of control

  The tendency to believe that circumstances are not within one’s control but rather are due to luck, fate, or other people.

• Extinction

  In classical conditioning, the gradual weakening and disappearance of a conditioned response when a conditioned stimulus is not followed by an unconditioned stimulus. In operant conditioning, it’s the gradual disappearance of a response after it stops being reinforced.

• Extraneous variable

  A variable other than the independent variable that could affect the dependent variable. It is not part of the hypothesis.

• Extrinsic motivation

  The motivation to act for external rewards.

• Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR)

  A type of exposure therapy in which clients move their eyes back and forth while recalling memories that are to be desensitized.

F

• Facial-feedback hypothesis

  The idea that the brain uses feedback from facial muscles to recognize emotions that are being experienced.

• Factor analysis

  A statistical procedure that clusters variables into dimensions depending on similarities among the variables.

• Falsifiability

  The ability of a theory or hypothesis to be rejected.

• Family studies

  Studies in which researchers examine trait similarities among members of a family to figure out whether that trait might be inherited.

• Family therapy

  A type of therapy in which a therapist sees two or more members of a family at the same time.

• Feature detectors

  Specialized neurons that are activated by specific features of the environment.

• Fee for service

  An arrangement for health care in which people pay providers for health care services.

• Feigned scarcity

  Implying that a product is in scarce supply, even when it is not, in order to increase demand for it.

• Fetal alcohol syndrome

  A collection of symptoms that may be present in babies of alcoholic mothers who drank heavily in pregnancy.

• Fetal stage

  The last stage of prenatal development, lasting from two months after conception until birth.

• Figure

  What stands out when people organize visual information.

• Fixation

  An inability to progress normally from one psychosexual stage of development into another.

• Fixed-interval schedule

  A reinforcement schedule in which reinforcement happens after a set amount of time.

• Fixed-ratio schedule

  A reinforcement schedule in which reinforcement happens after a set number of responses.

• Flashbulb memories

  Vivid, detailed memories of important events.

• Flooding

  A type of exposure therapy in which the client is exposed to a feared stimulus suddenly rather than gradually.

• Flynn effect

  Phenomenon showing that people’s performance on IQ tests has improved over time in industrialized countries.

• Foot-in-the-door phenomenon

  The tendency to agree to a difficult request if one has first agreed to an easy request.

• Forebrain

  The biggest and most complex part of the brain, which includes structures such as the thalamus, the hypothalamus, the limbic system, and the cerebrum.

• Forgetting curve

  A graph that shows how quickly learned information is forgotten over time.

• Fovea

  The center of the retina, where vision is sharpest.

• Free association

  A psychoanalytic technique that involves having the client verbalize all thoughts that come to mind.

• Frequency

  The number of times per second a sound wave cycles from the highest to the lowest point.

• Frequency theory

  A theory explaining how people discriminate low-pitched sounds that have a frequency below 1000 Hz.

• Frustration

  The experience of being thwarted in the process of achieving a goal.

• Frustration-aggression hypothesis

  A hypothesis stating that aggression is always caused by frustration.

• Functional fixedness

  The tendency to think only of an object’s most common use in solving a problem.

• Fundamental attribution error

  The tendency to attribute other people’s behavior to internal factors such as personality traits, abilities, and feelings. It is also called correspondence bias.

G

• GABA

  The main inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain.

• Galvanic skin response

  An increase in the skin’s rate of electrical conductivity. It is also known as an electrodermal response.

• Gambler’s fallacy

  The false belief that a chance event is more likely if it hasn’t happened recently.

• Gate-control theory

  States that pain signals traveling from the body to the brain must go through a gate in the spinal cord.

• Gender

  A learned distinction between masculinity and femininity.

• Gender stereotypes

  Societal beliefs about the characteristics of males and females.

• General adaptation syndrome

  The stress response of an organism, described by Hans Selye. The response has three stages: alarm, resistance, and exhaustion.

• General intelligence factor (g)

  An ability that underlies all intelligent behavior, proposed by Charles Spearman.

• Generalized anxiety disorder

  A disorder involving persistent and excessive anxiety or worry that lasts at least six months.

• Generative

  The characteristic symbols of a language that can be combined to produce an infinite number of messages.

• Genes

  Segments of DNA that function as hereditary units.

• Germinal stage

  The two-week period after conception.

• Gestalt psychology

  A German school of thought that studies how people organize visual information into patterns and forms.

• Glial cells

  Cells that give structural support to neurons and nourish and insulate them.

• Glucose

  A simple sugar that acts as an energy source for cells.

• Glutamate

  The main excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain.

• Grandiose delusion

  A belief centered around the idea that one is very important or famous.

• Ground

  The background in which a figure stands when people organize visual information.

• Group

  A social unit composed of two or more people who interact and depend on one another in some way.

• Group cohesiveness

  The strength of the liking and commitment group members have toward one another and to the group.

• Group polarization

  The tendency for a dominant point of view in a group to be strengthened to a more extreme position after a group discussion.

• Groupthink

  The tendency of a close-knit group to emphasize consensus at the expense of critical thinking and rational decision making.

H

• Hallucinations

  Sensory or perceptual experiences that happen without any external stimulus.

• Hallucinogens

  Drugs that cause sensory and perceptual distortions.

• Health psychology

  A branch of psychology that focuses on the relationship between psychosocial factors and the emergence, progression, and treatment of illness.

• Heritability

  A mathematical estimate that indicates how much of a trait’s variation in a population can be attributed to genetic factors.

• Heuristic

  A general rule of thumb that may lead to, but doesn’t guarantee, a correct solution to a problem.

• Hierarchical classification

  The ability to classify according to more than one level.

• Hierarchy of needs theory

  The idea, proposed by Abraham Maslow, that people are motivated by needs on four levels. Maslow believed people pay attention to higher needs only when lower needs are satisfied.

• Higher-order conditioning

  In classical conditioning, the process by which a neutral stimulus comes to act as a conditioned stimulus by being paired with another stimulus that already evokes a conditioned response.

• Hindbrain

  Portion of the brain consisting of the medulla, the pons, and the cerebellum.

• Hindsight bias

  The tendency to interpret the past in a way that fits the present.

• Hippocampus

  A part of the limbic system involved in memory.

• Histogram or bar graph

  A plot that shows how data are distributed.

• Histrionic personality

  A personality type characterized by a desire to be the center of attention and the tendency to be self-focused, excitable, highly open to suggestion, very emotional, and dramatic.

• Histrionic personality disorder

  A disorder characterized by attention-seeking behavior and shallow emotions.

• Homeostasis

  Maintenance of a state of physiological equilibrium in the body.

• Hormones

  Chemicals that are produced in glands and released into the bloodstream, involved in regulating body functions.

• Humanism

  A school of thought that encourages seeing people’s lives as those people would see them.

• Humanistic therapies

  Therapies aimed at helping people accept themselves and free themselves from unnecessary limitations.

• Hypnosis

  A procedure in which suggestions are made to a person.

• Hypochondriasis

  A disorder in which a person has constant fears of having a serious disease.

• Hypothalamus

  A part of the forebrain that helps to control the pituitary gland, the autonomic nervous system, body temperature, and biological drives.

• Hypothesis

  A testable prediction of what is going to happen given a certain set of conditions.

I

• Iconic memory

  Visual sensory memory.

• Id

  The component of the personality that contains instinctual energy.

• Identity achievement

  A state in which a person commits to an identity after considering alternative possibilities.

• Identity diffusion

  A state of confusion when a person lacks a clear sense of identity and hasn’t yet begun exploring issues related to identity development.

• Identity foreclosure

  A state in which a person has prematurely committed to values or roles prescribed by others.

• Identity moratorium

  A state in which commitment to an identity is delayed while a person experiments with various roles and values.

• Illusion

  A misinterpretation of a sensory stimulus.

• Immune system

  The body’s defense against harmful agents such as bacteria, viruses, and other foreign substances.

• Implantation

  The process by which the embryo becomes embedded in the wall of the uterus.

• Implicit attitudes

  Beliefs that are unconscious but that can still influence decisions and behavior.

• Implicit memory

  Unconscious retention of information that affects thoughts and behavior.

• Incentive

  An environmental stimulus that pulls people to act in a particular way.

• Inclusive fitness

  The reproductive fitness of an individual organism plus any effect that the organism has on increasing reproductive fitness in related organisms.

• Incongruence

  According to Carl Rogers and other humanistic therapists, a disparity between the self-concept and reality.

• Independent variable

  The variable that is manipulated in an experiment.

• Individual psychology

  Alfred Adler’s school of thought, which maintains that the main motivations for human behavior are not sexual or aggressive urges but strivings for superiority.

• Inductive reasoning

  The drawing of a general conclusion from certain premises or statements.

• Inferential statistics

  Statistics used to determine the likelihood that a result is just due to chance.

• Inferiority complex

  An exaggerated sense of inferiority.

• Informational social influence

  An individual’s tendency to conform because a group provides one with information.

• Informed consent

  A subject’s voluntary agreement to participate in a research study, given after he or she has learned enough about the study to make a knowledgeable decision to participate.

• Infradian rhythms

  Biological cycles that take longer than twenty-four hours.

• Ingroup

  A group to which one belongs.

• Inhibitory postsynaptic potential

  A negative change in voltage that occurs when a neurotransmitter binds to an inhibitory receptor.

• Innate abilities

  Abilities that are present from birth.

• Insanity

  A legal term that refers to the mental inability to take responsibility for one’s actions.

• Insight therapies

  Treatments involving complex conversations between therapists and clients. The treatments aim to help clients understand the nature of their problems and the meaning of their behavior, thoughts, and feelings.

• Insomnia

  A chronic problem with falling or staying asleep.

• Instinctive drift

  The tendency for conditioning to be hindered by natural instincts.

• Insulin

  A hormone secreted by the pancreas.

• Integrative approach

  Therapy approaches that combine the ideas and techniques of several different schools of psychology.

• Intelligence

  The capacity to acquire and apply knowledge. It includes the ability to benefit from past experience, act purposefully, solve problems, and adapt to new situations.

• Intelligence quotient (IQ)

  A person’s mental age divided by his or her chronological age and multiplied by 100.

• Interference theory

  States that people forget information because of interference from other learned information.

• Intermittent reinforcement

  A reinforcement schedule in which reinforcement happens only on some of the occasions a particular response occurs. It is also called partial reinforcement.

• Internal attribution

  An inference that an event or a person’s behavior is due to personal factors such as traits, abilities, or feelings. It is also called dispositional attribution.

• Internal locus of control

  The tendency to believe that one has control over one’s circumstances.

• Interpersonal attraction

  Positive feelings about another person.

• Interpretation

  A psychoanalytic technique that involves suggesting the hidden meanings of free associations, dreams, feelings, memories, and behavior to the client.

• Interval schedule

  The schedule in which reinforcement happens after a particular time interval.

• Intimacy

  The warm, close, caring aspect of a romantic relationship.

• Intrinsic motivation

  The motivation to act for the sake of the activity alone.

• Ions

  Positively and negatively charged atoms and molecules.

• Iris

  A ring of muscle that surrounds the pupil in the eye.

• Irreversibility

  The inability to mentally reverse an operation.

J

• James-Lange theory

  The idea that people experience emotion because they perceive their bodies’ physiological responses to external events.

• Justification of effort

  The idea that if one works hard to reach a goal, one is likely to value that goal.

• Just world hypothesis

  The tendency to believe that the world is fair and that people get what they deserve.

K

• Kinesthesis

  The sense of the position and movement of body parts.

L

• Laboratory observation

  An observational research method in which information about subjects is collected in a laboratory setting.

• Language

  A system of symbols and rules used for meaningful communication.

• Latent content

  The hidden meaning of a dream.

• Lateralization

  The difference in specialization between the two hemispheres of the brain.

• Law of effect

  A law proposed by Edward Thorndike stating that any behavior that has good consequences will tend to be repeated, and any behavior that has bad consequences will tend to be avoided.

• Learned helplessness

  A tendency to give up passively in the face of unavoidable stressors.

• Learning

  A change in behavior or knowledge that results from experience.

• Learning model

  The idea that psychological disorders result from the reinforcement of abnormal behavior.

• Learning model of addiction

  The idea that addiction is a way of coping with stress.

• Lens

  Part of the eye behind the pupil and iris. It can adjust its shape to focus light from objects that are near or far away.

• Leptin

  A hormone secreted by fat cells.

• Lesioning studies

  An invasive method of studying the brain in which a specific, small area of the brain is destroyed.

• Lie scales

  Statistics used to provide information about the likelihood that a subject is lying in a test.

• Light

  A kind of electromagnetic radiation emitted by the sun, stars, fire, and lightbulbs.

• Light adaptation

  The process by which receptor cells become less sensitive to light.

• Light intensity

  The amount of light emitted or reflected by an object.

• Limbic system

  A part of the forebrain involved in emotional experience and memory.

• Linguistic relativity hypothesis

  A theory proposed by Benjamin Lee Whorf that claims that language determines the way people think.

• Link method

  The process of associating items with one another in order to remember them.

• Lithium

  A drug prescribed for treating bipolar disorders.

• Lobotomy

  A surgical procedure that severs nerve tracts in the frontal lobe, formerly used to treat certain psychological disorders but now rarely performed.

• Locus of control

  People’s perception of whether or not they have control over circumstances in their lives.

• Long-term memory

  A memory system that stores an unlimited amount of information permanently.

• Long-term potentiation

  A lasting change at synapses that occurs when long-term memories form.

• Lowball technique

  The act of making an attractive proposition and revealing its downsides only after a person has agreed to it.

• Lucid dreams

  Dreams in which people are aware that they are dreaming.

M

• Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

  A method for studying the brain that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce pictures of the brain.

• Major depressive disorder

  A disorder diagnosed after at least one major depressive episode.

• Major depressive episode

  A period of at least two weeks marked by sadness or irritability and loss of interest in activities. Other symptoms may include changed sleeping or eating patterns, low energy, feelings of worthlessness or guilt, difficulty concentrating, and recurrent thoughts about suicide.

• Managed care

  An arrangement for health care in which an organization, such as a health maintenance organization, acts as an intermediary between a person seeking care and a treatment provider.

• Manifest content

  The plot of a dream.

• Massed practice

  The process of learning material over a short period; also called cramming.

• Matching hypothesis

  The idea that people tend to pick partners who are about equal in level of attractiveness to themselves.

• Maturation

  Genetically programmed growth and development.

• Mean

  The arithmetic average of a set of scores.

• Measures of central tendency

  The mean, median, and mode.

• Median

  The middle score in a set when all scores are arranged in order from lowest to highest.

• Medical model

  A way of describing and explaining psychological disorders as if they are diseases.

• Meditation

  The practice of focusing attention.

• Medulla

  A part of the hindbrain that controls essential functions that are not under conscious control, such as breathing.

• Melatonin

  A hormone that regulates the sleep cycle.

• Memory

  The capacity for storing and retrieving information.

• Menarche

  A woman’s first menstrual period.

• Menopause

  The gradual, permanent cessation of menstruation.

• Mental age

  The chronological age that typically corresponds to a particular level of performance. It is used as a measure of performance on intelligence tests.

• Mental hospitals

  Medical institutions that specialize in providing treatment for psychological disorders.

• Mental set

  A tendency to use only solutions that have worked in the past.

• Mere exposure effect

  The tendency to like novel stimuli more if one encounters them repeatedly.

• Metalinguistic awareness

  The capacity to think about how language is used.

• Method of loci

  The process of imagining oneself physically in a familiar place in order to remember something.

• Midbrain

  The part of the brain between the hindbrain and forebrain that is involved in locating events in space and that contains a dopamine-releasing system of neurons.

• Midlife crisis

  A time of doubt and anxiety in middle adulthood.

• Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)

  A test developed to help clinical psychologists diagnose psychological disorders.

• Misinformation effect

  The tendency for recollections of events to be distorted by information given after the event occurred.

• Mnemonics

  Strategies for improving memory.

• Mode

  The most frequently occurring score in a set of scores.

• Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs)

  A class of antidepressant drugs that increase the level of norepinephrine and serotonin.

• Monocular cues

  Depth perception cues that require only one eye.

• Monogenic traits

  Traits determined by a single gene.

• Mood disorders

  Disorders characterized by marked disturbances in emotional state, which affect thinking, physical symptoms, social relationships, and behavior.

• Moral reasoning

  The reasons and processes that cause people to think the way they do about right and wrong.

• Morpheme

  The smallest meaningful unit in a language.

• Motivated forgetting

  The idea that people forget things they don’t want to remember; also called psychogenic amnesia.

• Motivation

  An internal process that makes a person move toward a goal.

• Motive

  An impulse that causes a person to act.

• Motor development

  The increasing coordination of muscles that makes physical movements possible.

• Muller-Lyer illusion

  Illusion in which two lines of the same length appear to be different lengths because of different diagonal lines attached to the end of each line.

• Mutations

  Small changes in genes.

• Myelin sheath

  The fatty coating around some axons that increases the speed of neural impulse transmission.

N

• Name calling

  A strategy of labeling people in order to influence their or others’ thinking.

• Narcissistic personality disorder

  A disorder in which a person has an exaggerated sense of importance, a strong desire to be admired, and a lack of empathy.

• Narcolepsy

  A tendency to fall asleep periodically during the day.

• Narcotics

  Drugs that can relieve pain; also called opiates.

• Narrative method

  The process of making up a story in order to remember something.

• Naturalistic observation

  A method of collecting information about subjects in a natural setting without interfering with them in any way.

• Negative correlation

  A relationship between two variables in which one variable increases as the other one decreases.

• Negatively skewed distribution

  A data distribution with a few very low scores.

• Negative punishment

  In operant conditioning, the removal of a stimulus after a response so that the response will be less likely to occur.

• Negative reinforcement

  In operant conditioning, the removal of a stimulus after a response so that the response will be more likely to occur.

• Negative symptoms

  Indicated by an absence or reduction of normal behavior.

• NEO Personality Inventory

  A test that measures the Big Five traits: extraversion, openness to experience, agreeableness, conscientiousness, and neuroticism.

• Nerves

  Bundles of axons extending from many neurons.

• Nervous system

  A complex, highly coordinated network of tissues that communicate via electrochemical signals.

• Neurons

  Nervous system cells that communicate via electrochemical signals.

• Neurotransmitters

  Chemicals that are released from a neuron and activate another neuron.

• Nocturnal emissions

  Signal of the onset of puberty for boys; also called wet dreams.

• Norepinephrine

  A neurotransmitter involved in learning, memory, dreaming, awakening, emotion, and responses to stress.

• Normal distribution

  A symmetrical bell-shaped curve that represents how characteristics such as IQ are distributed in a large population.

• Normative social influence

  An individual’s tendency to conform because of a need to be accepted or not rejected by a group.

• Norms

  Data that provide information about how a person’s test score compares with the scores of other test takers.

• Nucleotides

  Biochemical units that make up DNA and genes.

O

• Obedience

  Compliance with commands given by an authority figure.

• Objective personality tests

  Tests that usually consist of self-report inventories. Commonly used objective tests include the MMPI-2, the 16PF, and the NEO Personality Inventory.

• Objective test

  Generally a pencil-and-paper-type standardized test used to assess a psychological disorder.

• Object permanence

  The ability to recognize that an object exists even when the object is not present and not perceived.

• Object relations

  The relationships that people have with others, who are represented mentally as objects with certain attributes.

• Observational learning

  A change in behavior or knowledge that happens by watching others. It can also be called vicarious conditioning.

• Obsessions

  Persistent ideas, thoughts, impulses, or images that cause anxiety or distress.

• Obsessive-compulsive disorder

  A disorder involving obsessions, compulsions, or both.

• Occam’s razor

  See principle of parsimony.

• Oedipus complex

  In psychoanalytic theory, a male child’s sexual desire for his mother and his hostility toward his father, whom he considers to be a rival for his mother’s love.

• Operant conditioning

  A type of learning in which responses come to be controlled by their consequences.

• Operational definition

  A way of stating precisely how a variable will be measured.

• Opponent process theory

  A theory of color vision that states that the visual system has receptors responding in opposite ways to wavelengths associated with three pairs of colors.

• Optic disk

  The point in the retina at which the optic nerve leaves the eye. This point is also called the blind spot.

• Optic nerve

  A bundle of ganglion cell axons that originate in the retina.

• Optimism

  The tendency to expect positive outcomes.

• Ossicles

  Three bones in the middle ear called the hammer, the anvil, and the stirrup.

• Outgroup

  A group to which one does not belong.

• Overlearning

  Continuing to practice material even after it is learned in order to increase retention.

• Overcompensation

  According to Alfred Adler, the attempt to cover up a sense of inferiority by focusing on outward signs of superiority such as status, wealth, and power.

• Overconfidence effect

  The tendency for people to be too certain that their beliefs, decisions, estimates, and accuracy of recall are correct.

P

• Panic attack

  A period in which a person has uncomfortable and frightening physical and psychological symptoms, including heart palpitations, trembling, fear of dying, and a perceived loss of control.

• Panic disorder

  A disorder characterized by recurrent, unexpected panic attacks.

• Papillae

  Small bumps on the skin that hold taste buds, which in turn hold the taste receptors in the tongue and throat, on the inside of the cheeks, and on the roof of the mouth.

• Paranoid type

  A subtype of schizophrenia characterized by marked delusions or hallucinations and relatively normal cognitive and emotional functioning.

• Parasympathetic nervous system

  Part of the autonomic nervous system that keeps the body still and conserves energy. It is active during states of relaxation.

• Parental investment

  The sum of resources spent in order to produce and raise offspring.

• Partial reinforcement effect

  Phenomenon in which responses resist extinction because of partial or intermittent schedules of reinforcement.

• Passionate love

  Sexual desire and tenderness for, and intense absorption in, a person with whom one is romantically involved.

• Peg word method

  Process of remembering a rhyme that associates numbers with words and words with the items to be remembered.

• Penis envy

  In psychoanalytic theory, a sense of discontent and resentment that Freud thought women experience, resulting from their wish for a penis.

• Percentile score

  A score that indicates the percentage of people who achieved the same as or less than a particular score.

• Perception

  Organization and interpretation of sensory information.

• Perceptual constancy

  The ability to recognize that an object is the same even when it produces different images on the retina.

• Perceptual set

  The readiness to see in a particular way that’s based on expectations, experiences, emotions, and assumptions.

• Perceptual speed

  The amount of time a person takes to accurately perceive and discriminate between stimuli.

• Peripheral nervous system

  The part of the nervous system outside the brain and the spinal cord that includes the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system.

• Persecutory delusion

  A belief centered on the idea that one is being oppressed, pursued, or harassed.

• Personality

  The collection of characteristic thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that make up a person.

• Personality disorders

  Disorders characterized by stable patterns of experience and behavior that differ noticeably from patterns considered normal by a person’s culture.

• Personal unconscious

  An individual’s unconscious, unique to him or her.

• Person-centered theory

  A theory, proposed by Carl Rogers, stating that the self-concept is the most important feature of personality.

• Person perception

  The process of forming impressions about other people.

• Phi phenomenon

  An illusion of movement that arises when a series of images is presented very quickly one after another; also called stroboscopic movement.

• Phoneme

  The smallest distinguishable unit in a language.

• Phonemic encoding

  A way of encoding verbal information that emphasizes how words sound.

• Photoreceptor

  Cells that are specialized to receive light stimuli.

• Physical dependence

  Addiction based on a need to avoid withdrawal symptoms.

• Pineal gland

  A gland that secretes melatonin.

• Pinna

  The visible part of the ear.

• Pituitary

  The master gland of the endocrine system, which regulates the function of many other glands.

• Placebo effect

  The effect on a subject of receiving a fake drug or treatment. Expectations of improvement contribute to placebo effects.

• Placenta

  The tissue that passes oxygen and nutrients from the mother’s blood into the fetus and removes waste materials from the fetus.

• Place theory

  Explains how people discriminate high-pitched sounds that have a frequency greater than 5000 Hz.

• Pleasure principle

  The drive to achieve pleasure and avoid pain. It is the operating principle of the id.

• Polygenic traits

  Traits influenced by several genes.

• Polygraph or lie detector

  A device that detects changes in autonomic arousal.

• Polygyny

  A mating system in which a single male mates with many females.

• Pons

  A part of the hindbrain involved in sleeping, waking, and dreaming.

• Population

  The collection of individuals from which a sample is drawn.

• Positive correlation

  A relationship between two variables in which as one variable increases, the other does too.

• Positively skewed distribution

  A data distribution with a few very high scores.

• Positive punishment

  In operant conditioning, the presentation of a stimulus after a response so that the response will be less likely to occur.

• Positive reinforcement

  In operant conditioning, the presentation of a stimulus after a response so that the response will be more likely to occur.

• Positive symptoms

  Symptoms indicated by the presence of altered behaviors.

• Positron emission tomography (PET)

  A method for studying the brain that involves injecting a radioactive substance, which collects in active brain areas.

• Postsynaptic neuron

  At a synapse, the neuron that receives a neurotransmitter.

• Postsynaptic potential

  The voltage change that occurs at a receptor site of a postsynaptic neuron when a neurotransmitter molecule links up with a receptor molecule.

• Posthypnotic amnesia

  The phenomenon that occurs when a person who has been hypnotized and instructed to forget what happened during hypnosis accordingly claims not to remember what happened.

• Post–traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)

  A disorder in which a person constantly re-experiences a traumatic event, avoids stimuli associated with the trauma, and shows symptoms of increased arousal.

• Preconscious

  The part of the mind that contains information that is outside of a person’s attention, which is not currently being attended to, but which is readily accessible if needed.

• Prejudice

  A negative belief or feeling about a particular group of individuals.

• Prenatal period

  The time between conception and birth.

• Pressure

  A sense of being compelled to behave in a particular way because of expectations set by oneself or others.

• Presynaptic neuron

  At a synapse, the neuron that releases a neurotransmitter.

• Primary auditory cortex

  In the temporal lobe of the cerebrum, the brain part involved in processing auditory information.

• Primary motor cortex

  In the frontal lobe of the cerebrum, the brain part involved in controlling muscle movement.

• Primary process thinking

  Thinking that is irrational, illogical, and motivated by a desire of immediate gratification of impulses.

• Primary punisher

  In operant conditioning, a consequence that is naturally unpleasant.

• Primary reinforcer

  In operant conditioning, a consequence that is naturally satisfying.

• Primary somatosensory cortex

  In the parietal lobe of the cerebrum, the brain part involved in handling touch-related information.

• Primary visual cortex

  In the occipital lobe of the cerebrum, the brain part involved in handling visual information.

• Priming

  The retrieval of a particular memory by activating information associated with that memory.

• Principle of closure

  The Gestalt psychology principle that states that people tend to interpret familiar incomplete forms as complete by filling in gaps.

• Principle of continuity

  The Gestalt psychology principle that states that people tend to perceive interrupted lines and patterns as continuous by filling in gaps.

• Principle of parsimony

  The principle of applying the simplest possible explanation to any set of observations; also called Occam’s razor.

• Principle of proximity

  The Gestalt psychology principle that states that people tend to perceive objects as a group when they are close together.

• Principle of similarity

  The Gestalt psychology principle that states that people tend to group similar objects together.

• Principle of simplicity

  The Gestalt psychology principle that states that people tend to perceive forms as simple, symmetrical figures rather than as irregular ones.

• Prison study

  A famous study done by Philip Zimbardo that showed the influence of roles.

• Proactive interference

  The forgetting of new information because of previously learned information.

• Problem solving

  The active effort people make to achieve a goal that cannot be easily attained.

• Procedural memory

  Memory of how to do things. Procedural memory is usually considered implicit.

• Prognosis

  A prediction about the probable course and outcome of a disorder.

• Projection

  A defense mechanism that involves attributing one’s own unacceptable thoughts or feelings to someone else.

• Projective hypothesis

  The idea that people interpret ambiguous stimuli in ways that reveal their concerns, needs, conflicts, desires, and feelings.

• Projective personality tests

  Tests that require subjects to respond to ambiguous stimuli, such as pictures and phrases, that can be interpreted in many different ways.

• Projective test

  A test that requires psychologists to make judgments based on a subject’s responses to ambiguous stimuli. It is used to assess a psychological disorder.

• Prototype

  A typical example of a concept.

• Proximity

  The tendency to perceive objects that lie close together as groups.

• Psychoactive drugs

  Drugs that have effects on sensory experience, perception, mood, thinking, and behavior.

• Psychoanalysis

  A technique developed by Sigmund Freud to treat mental disorders. It is also a theory of personality developed by Freud that focuses on unconscious forces, the importance of childhood experiences, and division of the psyche into the id, ego, and superego.

• Psychodynamic model

  The idea that psychological disorders result from maladaptive defenses against unconscious conflicts.

• Psychodynamic theories

  Theories based on the work of Sigmund Freud. These theories emphasize unconscious motives and desires and the importance of childhood experiences in shaping personality.

• Psychological dependence

  Addiction based on cravings for a drug.

• Psychological test

  An instrument that is used to collect information about personality traits, emotional states, aptitudes, interests, abilities, values, or behaviors.

• Psychometric approach

  A method of understanding intelligence that emphasizes people’s performance on standardized aptitude tests.

• Psychophysics

  The study of the relationship between physical properties of stimuli and people’s experience of the stimuli.

• Psychotherapy

  The treatment of psychological problems through confidential verbal communications with a mental health professional.

• Puberty

  The beginning of adolescence, marked by menarche in girls and the beginning of nocturnal emissions in boys.

• Pubescence

  The two years before puberty.

• Punishment

  The delivery of a consequence that decreases the likelihood that a response will occur.

• Pupil

  An opening that lets light into the back of the eye.

• Pure light

  Light of a single wavelength.

R

• Random assignment

  A way of placing subjects into either an experimental or a control group such that subjects have an equal chance of being placed in either one group or the other.

• Range

  The difference between the highest and lowest scores in a set of scores.

• Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep

  A stage of deep sleep in which brain wave activity is similar to that in the waking state. It is also called paradoxical sleep.

• REM rebound effect

  The tendency to spend more time in the REM stage of sleep after a period of REM sleep deprivation.

• Rational-emotive therapy

  A type of cognitive-behavioral therapy, developed by Albert Ellis, that aims to identify catastrophic thinking and to change the irrational assumptions that underlie it.

• Rationalization

  A defense mechanism that involves using incorrect but self-serving explanations to justify unacceptable behavior, thoughts, or feelings.

• Ratio schedule

  A schedule in which reinforcement happens after a certain number of responses.

• Reaction formation

  A defense mechanism that involves behaving in a way that is opposite to behavior, feelings, or thoughts that are considered unacceptable.

• Reaction range

  The limits that heredity places on characteristics such as IQ.

• Reaction time

  The amount of time a subject takes to respond to a stimulus.

• Reality principle

  The awareness that gratification of impulses has to be delayed in order to accommodate the demands of the real world. It also acts as the operating principle of the ego.

• Recall

  The process of remembering without any external cues.

• Receptive language

  The ability to understand language.

• Reciprocal determinism

  The process of interaction between a person’s characteristics and the environment. This interaction results in personality.

• Reciprocity norm

  An implicit rule in many societies that tells people they should return favors or gifts given to them.

• Recognition

  The process of identifying learned information by using external cues.

• Reflex

  An innate response to a stimulus.

• Regression

  A defense mechanism that involves reverting to a more immature state of psychological development.

• Regression toward the mean

  The tendency for extreme states to move toward the average when assessed a second time.

• Rehearsal

  The process of practicing material in order to remember it.

• Reinforcement

  The delivery of a consequence that increases the likelihood that a response will occur.

• Reinforcement schedule

  The pattern in which reinforcement is given over time.

• Relearning

  A method for measuring forgetting and retention, which involves assessing the amount of time it takes to memorize information a second time.

• Reliability

  The ability of a test to produce the same result when administered at different times to the same group of people.

• Replicability

  The ability of research to repeatedly yield the same results when done by different researchers.

• Representativeness heuristic

  A rule-of-thumb strategy that estimates the probability of an event based on how typical that event is.

• Representative sample

  A sample that corresponds to the population from which it is drawn in terms of age, sex, and other qualities on the variables being studied.

• Repression

  A defense mechanism that involves keeping unpleasant thoughts, memories, and feelings shut up in the unconscious.

• Reproductive advantage

  The outcome of a characteristic that helps an organism mate successfully and thus pass on its genes to the next generation.

• Resistance

  A client’s usually unconscious efforts to block the progress of treatment.

• Response tendency

  A learned tendency to behave in a particular way.

• Resting potential

  The slight negative charge inside an inactive neuron.

• Resting state

  The period during which the inside of a neuron has a slightly higher concentration of negatively charged ions than the outside does. A neuron during this time is inactive.

• Retention

  The proportion of learned information that is retained or remembered.

• Reticular formation

  A structure that includes parts of the hindbrain and midbrain and that is involved in sleep, wakefulness, pain perception, breathing, and muscle reflexes.

• Retina

  A thin layer of neural tissue in the back of the eye.

• Retinal disparity

  The difference between the images picked up by the two eyes.

• Retrieval

  The process of getting information out of memory.

• Retrieval cues

  Stimuli that help to get information out of memory.

• Retroactive interference

  Forgetting of old information because of newly learned information.

• Retrograde amnesia

  An inability to remember events that occurred before a brain injury or traumatic event.

• Reuptake

  The process by which neurotransmitter molecules return to presynaptic neurons.

• Reversibility

  The ability to reverse actions mentally.

• Reversible figure

  An ambiguous drawing that can be interpreted in more than one way.

• Risky shift

  The tendency for a dominant, risky point of view in a group to be strengthened to an even riskier position after a group discussion.

• Rods

  Photoreceptor cells in the retina that allow people to see in dim light.

• Rorschach test

  A series of ten inkblots that subjects are asked to describe. Psychologists then use complex scoring systems to interpret the subjects’ responses.

S

• Sample

  A collection of subjects, drawn from a population, that a researcher studies.

• Sampling bias

  A source of error that arises when the sample is not representative of the population that the researcher wants to study.

• Scalloped response pattern

  The phenomenon in which responses are slow in the beginning of the interval and faster just before reinforcement happens. It occurs as a result of a fixed-interval schedule.

• Schema

  A mental model of an object or event that includes knowledge about it as well as beliefs and expectations.

• Schizoid personality disorder

  A disorder characterized by social withdrawal and restricted expression of emotions.

• Schizophrenia

  A disorder involving a loss of contact with reality and symptoms that may include some of the following: hallucinations, delusions, disorganized speech or behavior, emotional flatness, social withdrawal, decreased richness of speech, and lack of motivation.

• Scientific method

  A standardized way of making observations, gathering data, forming theories, testing predictions, and interpreting results.

• Secondary process thinking

  Thinking that is logical and rational.

• Secondary punisher

  In operant conditioning, a consequence that is unpleasant because it has become associated with a primary punisher. It is also called a conditioned punisher.

• Secondary reinforcer

  In operant conditioning, a consequence that is satisfying because it has become associated with a primary reinforcer. It is also called a conditioned reinforcer.

• Secondary sex characteristics

  Sex-specific physical traits that are not essential to reproduction, such as breasts, widened hips, facial hair, and deepened voices.

• Sedatives

  Drugs that slow down the nervous system.

• Selective attention

  The ability to focus on some pieces of sensory information and ignore others.

• Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs)

  A class of antidepressant drugs that increase the level of serotonin.

• Self-actualization

  The need to realize one’s full potential. According to Maslow, this is human beings’ highest need, which arises after the satisfaction of more basic needs.

• Self-concept

  According to Rogers, the most important feature of personality. The self-concept includes all the thoughts, feelings, and beliefs people have about themselves.

• Self-effacing bias

  The tendency of people in certain cultures to attribute their successes to situational factors rather than to personal attributes and to attribute their failures to lack of effort.

• Self-efficacy

  Confidence in one’s ability to meet challenges effectively.

• Self-help groups

  Groups that are similar to therapy groups except that they do not have a therapist.

• Self-report data

  Information that people being surveyed give about themselves.

• Self-report inventory

  A paper-and-pen test that requires people to answer questions about their typical behavior.

• Self-serving bias

  The tendency to attribute successes to internal factors and failures to situational factors.

• Semantic encoding

  A way of encoding verbal information that emphasizes the meaning of words.

• Semantic memory

  Remembering of general facts.

• Semantic slanting

  A way of making statements so that they will evoke specific emotional responses.

• Semicircular canals

  Three fluid-filled tubes that are the main structures in the vestibular system. They are located in the inner ear.

• Sensation

  Occurs when physical energy from objects in the world or in the body stimulates the sense organs.

• Sensory adaptation

  The decrease in sensitivity to an unchanging stimulus.

• Sensory memory

  A memory system that stores incoming sensory information for an instant.

• Separation anxiety

  The emotional distress babies show when separated from their caregivers.

• Serotonin

  A neurotransmitter involved in sleep, wakefulness, appetite, aggression, impulsivity, sensory perception, temperature regulation, pain suppression, and mood.

• Set point

  A genetically influenced determinant for body weight.

• Sex

  A biological distinction between males and females.

• Sexual script

  A set of implicit rules that allow a person to judge what sexual behavior is appropriate in a given situation.

• Sexual selection

  Process in which females choose their mates based on certain characteristics that will then be passed on to their male offspring.

• Shaping

  In operant conditioning, a procedure in which reinforcement is used to guide a response closer and closer to a desired response.

• Short-term memory

  A memory system that stores a limited amount of information for a brief period.

• Signal detection theory

  A theory used to predict when a weak signal will be detected.

• Similarity

  The tendency to group similar objects together.

• Simplicity

  The tendency to perceive forms as simple, symmetrical figures rather than as irregular ones.

• Single-blind

  A procedure in which subjects don’t know whether they are in an experimental or control group.

• Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (16PF)

  A test that assesses sixteen basic dimensions of personality.

• Skinner box

  A device used to study operant conditioning.

• Sleep apnea

  A condition in which a person stops breathing many times during a night’s sleep.

• Sleep spindles

  Short bursts of brain waves that occur during stage 2 sleep.

• Smooth muscles

  Involuntary muscles that help organs such as the stomach and bladder carry out their functions.

• Social clocks

  Social and cultural norms that indicate the typical ages at which people experience particular life events, behaviors, and issues.

• Social desirability bias

  The tendency of some people to describe themselves in socially approved ways.

• Social exchange theory

  A theory arguing that people help each other because they want to gain as much as possible while losing as little as possible.

• Social facilitation

  The tendency for individuals to perform better in the presence of other people.

• Social loafing

  The reduced effort people invest in a task when they are working with other people.

• Social norms

  Societal rules about appropriate behavior.

• Social phobia

  A disorder characterized by intense anxiety when exposed to certain kinds of social or performance situations.

• Social responsibility norm

  A societal rule that tells people they should help others who need help even if doing so is costly.

• Social roles

  Patterns of behavior that are considered appropriate for a person in a particular context.

• Social schemas

  Mental models that represent and categorize social events and people.

• Social skills training

  A behavioral therapy that aims to enhance a client’s relationships with other people.

• Social trap

  A situation in which one harms oneself and others by acting in one’s self-interest.

• Soma

  The central area of a neuron; also called the cell body.

• Somatic nervous system

  The part of the peripheral nervous system that is connected to the skeletal muscles and sense organs.

• Somatization disorder

  A disorder characterized by a wide variety of physical symptoms, such as pain and gastrointestinal, sexual, and pseudoneurological problems. The disorder begins before age thirty and continues for many years. It is also called hysteria or Briquet’s syndrome.

• Somatoform disorders

  Disorders characterized by real physical symptoms that cannot be fully explained by a medical condition, the effects of a drug, or another mental disorder.

• Sound waves

  Changes in pressure generated by vibrating molecules.

• Source amnesia

  Inaccurate recall of the origin of information in memory. It is also called source misattribution or source monitoring error.

• Specific phobia

  A disorder in which a person feels intense anxiety when exposed to a particular object or situation.

• Spinal cord

  Connects the brain to the rest of the body.

• Spinal reflexes

  Automatic behaviors that require no input from the brain.

• Split-brain surgery

  A surgical operation in which the corpus callosum is cut, separating the two hemispheres of the brain.

• Spontaneous recovery

  In classical conditioning, the reappearance of an extinguished conditioned response.

• Stable attribution

  An inference that an event or behavior is due to stable, unchanging factors.

• Stage

  A period in development when people show typical behavior patterns and capacities.

• Standard deviation

  A statistic that indicates the degree to which scores vary around the mean of a distribution.

• Standardized tests

  Tests with uniform procedures for administration and scoring.

• Standardization

  The use of uniform procedures when administering and scoring tests.

• Standardization sample

  A large group of people that is representative of the entire population of potential test takers.

• States

  Temporary behaviors or feelings.

• Statistical significance

  The likelihood that a result was not due to chance.

• Statistics

  The analysis and interpretation of numerical data.

• Stereotypes

  Beliefs about people based on their membership in a particular group.

• Stimulants

  Drugs that stimulate the central nervous system.

• Stimulus discrimination

  In classical conditioning, the tendency not to have a conditioned response to a new stimulus that’s similar to the original conditioned stimulus. In operant conditioning, it’s the tendency for a response to happen only when a particular stimulus is present.

• Stimulus generalization

  In classical conditioning, the tendency to respond to a new stimulus as if it’s the original conditioned stimulus. In operant conditioning, it’s the tendency to respond to a new stimulus as if it’s the original discriminative stimulus.

• Storage

  The process of maintaining information in memory.

• Strange Situation

  An experiment devised for studying attachment behavior.

• Stress

  The experience of being threatened by taxing circumstances. It also sometimes refers to circumstances that threaten well-being, to the response people have to threatening circumstances, or to the process of evaluating and coping with threatening circumstances.

• Stressors

  Circumstances or events that are psychologically or physically demanding.

• Structural encoding

  A way of encoding verbal information that emphasizes how words look.

• Subject

  An individual person or animal that a researcher studies.

• Subject bias

  Bias that results from the subject’s expectations or the subject’s changing of his or her behavior.

• Subjective utility

  The process of making a decision by estimating the personal value of a decision’s outcome.

• Subjective well-being

  The perception people have about their happiness and satisfaction with life.

• Sublimation

  A defense mechanism that involves channeling unacceptable thoughts and feelings into socially acceptable behavior.

• Substance abuse

  According to the DSM, a maladaptive pattern of drug use that results in repeated negative consequences such as legal, social, work-related, or school-related problems.

• Superego

  The moral component of the personality.

• Suprachiasmatic nucleus

  The main biological clock regulating circadian rhythms of sleep in humans.

• Survey

  A method of getting information about a specific behavior, experience, or event by means of interviews or questionnaires, using several participants.

• Survival advantage

  The outcome of a characteristic that helps an organism to live long enough to reproduce and pass on its genes.

• Symbol

  A sound, gesture, or written character that represents an object, action, event, or idea.

• Symbolic thought

  The ability to represent objects in terms of mental symbols.

• Sympathetic nervous system

  Part of the autonomic nervous system that prepares the body for action and expends energy.

• Synapse

  The junction between the axon of one neuron and the cell body or dendrite of a neighboring neuron.

• Synaptic cleft

  The gap between two cells at a synapse.

• Synaptic vesicles

  Small sacs inside a neuron’s terminal buttons, in which neurotransmitters are stored.

• Syntax

  A system of rules that governs how words can be meaningfully arranged to form phrases and sentences.

• Systematic densensitization

  A behavioral treatment that uses counterconditioning to decrease anxiety.

T

• Tardive dyskinesia

  A serious side effect of antipsychotic drugs. It is usually a permanent condition, characterized by involuntary movements.

• Telegraphic speech

  Speech that contains no articles or prepositions.

• Temperament

  Innate personality features or dispositions.

• Teratogen

  An agent such as a virus, a drug, or radiation that can cause deformities in an embryo or fetus.

• Terminal buttons

  Bumps at the end of axons that release neurotransmitters.

• Test-retest reliability

  The ability of a test to produce the same results when given to the same group of people at different times.

• Thalamus

  The part of the brain through which almost all sensory information goes on its way to the cerebrum.

• Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

  A psychological test that requires people to make up stories about a set of ambiguous pictures. It is often used to measure the need for achievement.

• Theory

  An explanation that organizes separate pieces of information in a coherent way.

• Theory of natural selection

  A theory that explains the process of evolution. It states that inherited characteristics that give an organism a reproductive or survival advantage are passed on more often to future generations than other inherited characteristics.

• Therapeutic window

  The amount of a drug that is required for an effect without toxicity.

• Theta waves

  The type of brain waves present when a person is lightly asleep.

• Timbre

  The particular quality of a sound.

• Token economy

  A behavior modification program based on operant conditioning principles.

• Tolerance

  The need over time for more and more of a drug to get the same effect.

• Traits

  Characteristic behaviors and feelings that are consistent and long lasting.

• Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)

  A noninvasive procedure for treating severe depression that involves stimulation of the brain by means of a magnetic coil.

• Transference

  The process by which clients relate to their psychoanalyst or therapist as they would to important figures in their past.

• Transformation

  Making a series of changes to achieve a specific goal.

• Trial and error

  Trying out different solutions until one works.

• Triarchic theory of intelligence

  A theory proposed by Robert Sternberg that distinguishes among three aspects of intelligence.

• Trichromatic theory

  A theory of color vision that states that there are three different types of cones in the retina, which are sensitive to light of three different wavelengths. It is also called the Young-Helmholtz theory.

• Tricyclics

  A class of antidepressant drugs that increase the level of norepinephrine and serotonin.

• Twin studies

  Studies in which researchers examine trait similarities between identical and fraternal twin pairs to figure out whether that trait might be inherited.

• Two-factor theory

  The idea that people’s experience of emotion depends on two factors: physiological arousal and the cognitive interpretation of that arousal. When people perceive physiological symptoms of arousal, they look for an environmental explanation of this arousal.

• Type A personality

  A personality type characterized by competitiveness, impatience, time pressure, anger, and hostility.

• Type B personality

  A personality type characterized by relaxed, patient, easygoing, amiable behavior.

U

• Ultradian rhythms

  Biological cycles that occur more than once a day.

• Unconditional positive regard

  A therapist quality that is considered crucial in client-centered therapy. It involves nonjudgmental acceptance of the client.

• Unconditioned response

  A naturally occurring response that happens without previous conditioning.

• Unconditioned stimulus

  A stimulus that evokes an innate response.

• Unconscious

  The part of the mind that contains thoughts, feelings, desires, and memories of which people have no awareness but that can influence people’s behavior.

• Undifferentiated type

  A subtype of schizophrenia diagnosed if a patient does not meet criteria for paranoid, disorganized, or catatonic subtypes of schizophrenia.

• Unstable attribution

  An inference that an event or behavior is due to unstable, temporary factors.

V

• Validity

  The ability of a test to measure the characteristic it is supposed to measure.

• Values

  Perceptions of what is important in life.

• Variable

  An event, characteristic, behavior, or condition that researchers measure and study.

• Variable-interval schedule

  A reinforcement schedule in which reinforcement happens after a particular average amount of time.

• Variable-ratio schedule

  A reinforcement schedule in which reinforcement happens after a particular average number of responses.

• Vestibular system

  The sensory system involved in balance.

• Vulnerability-stress model

  The idea that individuals who have a biological vulnerability to a particular disorder will have the disorder only if certain environmental stressors are present.

W

• Wavelength

  The distance between the peaks of waves.

• Wernicke’s area

  A part of the brain, in the left temporal lobe, that is involved in understanding language.

• Withdrawal symptoms

  Symptoms such as sweating, nausea, or shakiness that occurs when drug usage ceases.

• Womb envy

  In Karen Horney’s view, the discontent and resentment that men experience because of their inability to bear children.

• Working memory

  An active memory system that holds information while it’s processed or examined.

Z

• Zygote

  A cell that results from the combination of a sperm cell and an egg during conception.

Full list of words from this list:

words onlydefinitions & notes

  in list order  from A to Z  from Z to A  from easy to hard  from hard to easy 

1.  clinical psychology

   the branch of psychology concerned with the treatment of abnormal mentation and behavior

2.  cognition

   the psychological result of perception and reasoning

3.  cognitive psychology

   an approach to psychology that emphasizes internal mental processes

4.  developmental psychology

   the branch of psychology that studies the social and mental development of children

5.  experimental psychology

   the branch of psychology that uses experimental methods to study psychological issues

6.  industrial psychology

   any of several branches of psychology that seek to apply psychological principles to practical problems of education or industry or marketing etc.

7.  phobia

   an anxiety disorder characterized by irrational fear

8.  psychology

   the science of mental life

9.  social psychology

   the branch of psychology that studies persons and their relationships with others and with groups and with society as a whole

10.  normal distribution

    a theoretical distribution with finite mean and variance

11.  correlation coefficient

    a statistic representing how closely two variables co-vary

12.  dependent variable

    a quantity whose value depends on another quantity

13.  double-blind study

    an experimental procedure in which neither the subjects of the experiment nor the persons administering the experiment know the critical aspects of the experiment

14.  independent variable

    a value that does not depend on changes in other values

15.  informed consent

    consent by a patient to undergo a medical or surgical treatment or to participate in an experiment after the patient understands the risks involved

16.  hypothesis

    a tentative insight that is not yet verified or tested

17.  mean

    an average computed by adding some function of the numbers

18.  placebo

    an innocuous or inert medication

19.  standard deviation

    the square root of the variance

20.  theory

    a well-substantiated explanation of some aspect of the world

21.  variable

    something that is likely to change

22.  altruism

    the quality of unselfish concern for the welfare of others

23.  attractiveness

    the quality of arousing interest

24.  catharsis

    purging of emotional tensions

25.  collectivism

    a theory that the people should own the means of production

26.  complementarity

    a relation between two opposite states or principles that together exhaust the possibilities

27.  conflict

    an open clash between two opposing groups

28.  conformity

    correspondence in form, type, or appearance

29.  credibility

    the quality of being believable or trustworthy

30.  crowding

    a situation in which people or things are crowded together

31.  culture

    all the knowledge and values shared by a society

32.  debriefing

    a meeting in which someone reports on a mission or task

33.  deception

    a misleading falsehood

34.  dependent variable

    a quantity whose value depends on another quantity

35.  displacement

    the act of taking the position of another

36.  framing

    a framework that supports and protects a picture or a mirror

37.  frustration

    an act of hindering someone's plans or efforts

38.  groupthink

    decision making by a group

39.  heuristic

    a commonsense rule to help solve some problem

40.  hypothesis

    a tentative insight that is not yet verified or tested

41.  independent variable

    a value that does not depend on changes in other values

42.  individualism

    the quality of being a single thing or person

43.  informed consent

    consent by a patient to undergo a medical or surgical treatment or to participate in an experiment after the patient understands the risks involved

44.  obedience

    the trait of being willing to follow commands or guidance

45.  persuasion

    communication intended to induce belief or action

46.  priming

    the act of making something ready

47.  proximity

    the property of being close together

48.  random sampling

    the selection of a random sample

49.  regression toward the mean

    the relation between selected values of x and observed values of y (from which the most probable value of y can be predicted for any value of x)

50.  self-esteem

    a feeling of pride in yourself

51.  self-serving

    interested only in yourself

52.  schizophrenia

    a psychotic disorder characterized by distortions of reality

53.  antipsychotic

    tranquilizer used to treat psychotic conditions when a calming effect is desired

54.  psychological disorder

    a psychological disorder of thought or emotion

55.  psychological

    mental or emotional as opposed to physical in nature

56.  lobotomy

    surgery on nerves to and from the frontal lobe of the brain

57.  natural selection

    a process in which organisms evolve to adapt to environment

58.  amygdala

    an almond-shaped neural structure in the anterior part of the temporal lobe of the cerebrum; intimately connected with the hypothalamus and the hippocampus and the cingulate gyrus; as part of the limbic system it plays an important role in motivation and emotional behavior

59.  memory

    the cognitive process whereby past experience is remembered

60.  behaviorism

    an approach to psychology that emphasizes observable measurable behavior

61.  problem solving

    the thought processes involved in solving a problem

62.  psychopathology

    the branch of psychology concerned with abnormal behavior

63.  abnormal psychology

    the branch of psychology concerned with abnormal behavior

64.  animal psychology

    the branch of psychology concerned with the behavior of animals

65.  applied psychology

    any of several branches of psychology that seek to apply psychological principles to practical problems of education or industry or marketing etc.

66.  behavioristic psychology

    an approach to psychology that emphasizes observable measurable behavior

67.  behaviourism

    an approach to psychology that emphasizes observable measurable behavior

68.  behaviouristic psychology

    an approach to psychology that emphasizes observable measurable behavior

69.  child psychology

    the branch of psychology that studies the social and mental development of children

70.  cognitive psychology

    an approach to psychology that emphasizes internal mental processes

71.  comparative psychology

    the branch of psychology concerned with the behavior of animals

72.  developmental psychology

    the branch of psychology that studies the social and mental development of children

73.  differential psychology

    the branch of psychology that studies measurable differences between individuals

74.  experimental psychology

    the branch of psychology that uses experimental methods to study psychological issues

75.  genetic psychology

    the branch of psychology that studies the social and mental development of children

76.  group dynamics

    the branch of social psychology that studies the psychodynamics of interaction in social groups

77.  industrial psychology

    any of several branches of psychology that seek to apply psychological principles to practical problems of education or industry or marketing etc.

78.  psychodynamics

    the interrelation of conscious and unconscious processes and emotions that determine personality and motivation

79.  psycholinguistics

    the branch of cognitive psychology that studies the psychological basis of linguistic competence and performance

80.  psychometrics

    any branch of psychology concerned with psychological measurements

81.  psychometrika

    any branch of psychology concerned with psychological measurements

82.  psychometry

    any branch of psychology concerned with psychological measurements

83.  psychonomics

    the branch of psychology that uses experimental methods to study psychological issues

84.  psychophysics

    the branch of psychology concerned with quantitative relations between physical stimuli and their psychological effects

85.  psychophysiology

    the branch of psychology that is concerned with the physiological bases of psychological processes

86.  reflexology

    the study of reflex action as it relates to the behavior of organisms

87.  social psychology

    the branch of psychology that studies persons and their relationships with others and with groups and with society as a whole

88.  introvert

    a person who tends to shrink from social contacts

89.  stress

    a state of mental or emotional strain or suspense

90.  delusion

    an erroneous belief held in the face of contrary evidence

91.  inhibition

    the conscious exclusion of unacceptable thoughts or desires

92.  reinforcement

    a stimulus that strengthens the behavior that produced it

93.  sublimation

    making the expression of an impulse socially acceptable

94.  suppression

    the conscious exclusion of unacceptable thoughts or desires

95.  abience

    an urge to withdraw or avoid a situation or an object

96.  abnormal psychology

    the branch of psychology concerned with abnormal behavior

97.  adience

    an urge to accept or approach a situation or an object

98.  ambiversion

    (psychology) a balanced disposition intermediate between extroversion and introversion

99.  anima

    the inner self that is in touch with the unconscious

100.  animal psychology

     the branch of psychology concerned with the behavior of animals

101.  applied psychology

     any of several branches of psychology that seek to apply psychological principles to practical problems of education or industry or marketing etc.

102.  associationism

     (psychology) a theory that association is the basic principle of mental activity

103.  association theory

     (psychology) a theory that association is the basic principle of mental activity

104.  atomism

     (psychology) a theory that reduces all mental phenomena to simple elements (sensations and feelings) that form complex ideas by association

105.  behavior

     the aggregate of the responses made by an organism

106.  behaviorism

     an approach to psychology that emphasizes observable measurable behavior

107.  behavioristic psychology

     an approach to psychology that emphasizes observable measurable behavior

108.  behaviour

     the aggregate of the responses made by an organism

109.  behaviourism

     an approach to psychology that emphasizes observable measurable behavior

110.  behaviouristic psychology

     an approach to psychology that emphasizes observable measurable behavior

111.  clinical psychology

     the branch of psychology concerned with the treatment of abnormal mentation and behavior

112.  clinician

     a practitioner who works directly with patients

113.  cognitive operation

     the performance of some composite cognitive activity

114.  cognitive process

     the performance of some composite cognitive activity

115.  cognitive psychology

     an approach to psychology that emphasizes internal mental processes

116.  cognitive science

     the field of science concerned with cognition

117.  comparative psychology

     the branch of psychology concerned with the behavior of animals

118.  configurationism

     (psychology) a theory of psychology that emphasizes the importance of configurational properties

119.  constancy

     the tendency to give rise to similar perceptual experiences

120.  department of psychology

     the academic department responsible for teaching and research in psychology

121.  depth psychology

     a set of techniques for exploring underlying motives and a method of treating various mental disorders; based on the theories of Sigmund Freud

122.  developmental psychology

     the branch of psychology that studies the social and mental development of children

123.  differential psychology

     the branch of psychology that studies measurable differences between individuals

124.  double bind

     an unresolvable dilemma

125.  experimental psychology

     the branch of psychology that uses experimental methods to study psychological issues

126.  experimenter bias

     (psychology) bias introduced by an experimenter whose expectations about the outcome of the experiment can be subtly communicated to the participants in the experiment

127.  extraversion

     an extroverted disposition

128.  extravert

     (psychology) a person concerned more with practical realities than with inner thoughts and feelings

129.  extroversion

     an extroverted disposition

130.  extrovert

     a person directed toward others as opposed to the self

131.  Francis Galton

     English scientist (cousin of Charles Darwin) who explored many fields including heredity, meteorology, statistics, psychology, and anthropology; founder of eugenics and first to use fingerprints for identification (1822-1911)

132.  Freudian psychology

     the psychological theories of Sigmund Freud

133.  functionalism

     a psychology based on the assumption that all mental process are useful to an organism in adapting to the environment

134.  G. Stanley Hall

     United States child psychologist whose theories of child psychology strongly influenced educational psychology (1844-1924)

135.  Galton

     English scientist (cousin of Charles Darwin) who explored many fields including heredity, meteorology, statistics, psychology, and anthropology; founder of eugenics and first to use fingerprints for identification (1822-1911)

136.  generalisation

     (psychology) transfer of a response learned to one stimulus to a similar stimulus

137.  generalization

     transfer of a learned response to a similar stimulus

138.  genetic psychology

     the branch of psychology that studies the social and mental development of children

139.  Gestalt law of organization

     a principle of Gestalt psychology that identifies factors leading to particular forms of perceptual organization

140.  Gestalt principle of organization

     a principle of Gestalt psychology that identifies factors leading to particular forms of perceptual organization

141.  Gestalt psychology

     (psychology) a theory of psychology that emphasizes the importance of configurational properties

142.  Granville Stanley Hall

     United States child psychologist whose theories of child psychology strongly influenced educational psychology (1844-1924)

143.  group dynamics

     the branch of social psychology that studies the psychodynamics of interaction in social groups

144.  habit

     an automatic pattern of behavior in reaction to a situation

145.  Hall

     United States child psychologist whose theories of child psychology strongly influenced educational psychology (1844-1924)

146.  image

     a personal facade that one presents to the world

147.  industrial psychology

     any of several branches of psychology that seek to apply psychological principles to practical problems of education or industry or marketing etc.

148.  Ingmar Bergman

     Swedish film director who used heavy symbolism and explored the psychology of the characters (born 1918)

149.  introjection

     (psychology) unconscious internalization of aspects of the world (especially aspects of persons) within the self in such a way that the internalized representation takes over the psychological functions of the external objects

150.  introversion

     an introverted disposition

151.  John Broadus Watson

     United States psychologist considered the founder of behavioristic psychology (1878-1958)

152.  Jungian psychology

     the psychological theories of Carl Jung

153.  law of effect

     (psychology) the principle that behaviors are selected by their consequences; behavior having good consequences tends to be repeated whereas behavior that leads to bad consequences is not repeated

154.  memory

     the cognitive study of how past experience is remembered

155.  mental condition

     (psychology) a mental condition in which the qualities of a state are relatively constant even though the state itself may be dynamic

156.  mental process

     the performance of some composite cognitive activity

157.  mental state

     (psychology) a mental condition in which the qualities of a state are relatively constant even though the state itself may be dynamic

158.  mental strain

     (psychology) nervousness resulting from mental stress

159.  nervous strain

     (psychology) nervousness resulting from mental stress

160.  neuropsychology

     the branch of psychology that is concerned with the physiological bases of psychological processes

161.  operation

     the performance of some composite cognitive activity

162.  perceptual constancy

     (psychology) the tendency for perceived objects to give rise to very similar perceptual experiences in spite of wide variations in the conditions of observation

163.  perseverate

     repeat a response after cessation of the original stimulus

164.  persona

     an image of oneself that one presents to the world

165.  physiological psychology

     the branch of psychology that is concerned with the physiological bases of psychological processes

166.  presentational

     of or relating to a presentation

167.  problem solving

     the area of cognitive psychology that studies the processes involved in solving problems

168.  process

     the performance of some composite cognitive activity

169.  psychodynamics

     the branch of social psychology that deals with the processes and emotions that determine psychology and motivation

170.  psycholinguistic

     of or relating to the psychology of language

171.  psycholinguistics

     the branch of cognitive psychology that studies the psychological basis of linguistic competence and performance

172.  psychological

     of or relating to the science of mental life

173.  psychological condition

     (psychology) a mental condition in which the qualities of a state are relatively constant even though the state itself may be dynamic

174.  psychologically

     with regard to psychology

175.  psychologically

     in terms of psychology

176.  psychological state

     (psychology) a mental condition in which the qualities of a state are relatively constant even though the state itself may be dynamic

177.  psychologist

     a specialist in the science of mental life

178.  psychology

     the science of mental life

179.  psychology department

     the academic department responsible for teaching and research in psychology

180.  psychometrics

     any branch of psychology concerned with psychological measurements

181.  psychometrika

     any branch of psychology concerned with psychological measurements

182.  psychometry

     any branch of psychology concerned with psychological measurements

183.  psychonomics

     the branch of psychology that uses experimental methods to study psychological issues

184.  psychopathology

     the branch of psychology concerned with abnormal behavior

185.  psychophysics

     the branch of psychology concerned with quantitative relations between physical stimuli and their psychological effects

186.  psychophysiology

     the branch of psychology that is concerned with the physiological bases of psychological processes

187.  psychotic belief

     (psychology) an erroneous belief that is held in the face of evidence to the contrary

188.  readiness

     being temporarily ready to respond in a particular way

189.  rehearsal

     a form of practice

190.  reinforcer

     (psychology) a stimulus that strengthens or weakens the behavior that produced it

191.  reinforcing stimulus

     (psychology) a stimulus that strengthens or weakens the behavior that produced it

192.  sensitisation

     (psychology) the process of becoming highly sensitive to specific events or situations (especially emotional events or situations)

193.  sensitization

     the process of becoming highly responsive to situations

194.  set

     being temporarily ready to respond in a particular way

195.  Sir Francis Galton

     English scientist (cousin of Charles Darwin) who explored many fields including heredity, meteorology, statistics, psychology, and anthropology; founder of eugenics and first to use fingerprints for identification (1822-1911)

196.  Skinnerian

     of or relating to B. F. Skinner or his behaviorist psychology

197.  social psychology

     the branch of psychology that studies persons and their relationships with others and with groups and with society as a whole

198.  stimulus generalisation

     (psychology) transfer of a response learned to one stimulus to a similar stimulus

199.  stimulus generalization

     (psychology) transfer of a response learned to one stimulus to a similar stimulus

200.  strain

     (psychology) nervousness resulting from mental stress

201.  tenseness

     a state of mental or emotional strain or suspense

202.  tension

     a state of mental or emotional strain or suspense

203.  unitisation

     (psychology) the configuration of smaller units of information into large coordinated units

204.  unitization

     (psychology) the configuration of smaller units of information into large coordinated units

205.  use

     an automatic pattern of behavior in reaction to a situation

206.  Watson

     United States psychologist considered the founder of behavioristic psychology (1878-1958)

207.  cerebellum

     a major division of the vertebrate brain

208.  hypothalamus

     a basal part of the diencephalon governing autonomic nervous system

209.  cerebrum

     anterior part of the brain consisting of two hemispheres

210.  pituitary gland

     the master gland of the endocrine system

211.  arteria cerebelli

     an artery that supplies the cerebellum

212.  arteria communicans

     any of three arteries in the brain that make up the circle of Willis

213.  basal ganglion

     any of several masses of subcortical grey matter at the base of each cerebral hemisphere that seem to be involved in the regulation of voluntary movement

214.  betweenbrain

     the posterior division of the forebrain

215.  brain cell

     a nerve cell in the brain

216.  brain stem

     the part of the brain continuous with the spinal cord and comprising the medulla oblongata and pons and midbrain and parts of the hypothalamus

217.  brain-stem

     the part of the brain continuous with the spinal cord and comprising the medulla oblongata and pons and midbrain and parts of the hypothalamus

218.  brainstem

     the part of the brain continuous with the spinal cord and comprising the medulla oblongata and pons and midbrain and parts of the hypothalamus

219.  cerebellar artery

     an artery that supplies the cerebellum

220.  cerebellar hemisphere

     either of two lateral lobes of the cerebellum

221.  cerebral peduncle

     a bundle of myelinated neurons joining different parts of the brain

222.  cerebrospinal fluid

     clear liquid produced in the ventricles of the brain

223.  circle of Willis

     a ring of arteries at the base of the brain

224.  communicating artery

     any of three arteries in the brain that make up the circle of Willis

225.  forebrain

     the anterior portion of the brain

226.  hindbrain

     the posterior portion of the brain including cerebellum and brainstem

227.  hypophysis

     the master gland of the endocrine system

228.  inferior colliculus

     an essential auditory center in the midbrain

229.  infundibulum

     any of various funnel-shaped parts of the body

230.  interbrain

     the posterior division of the forebrain

231.  locus niger

     a layer of deeply pigmented grey matter in the midbrain

232.  mamillary body

     one of two small round structures on the undersurface of the brain that form the terminals of the anterior arches of the fornix

233.  mammillary body

     one of two small round structures on the undersurface of the brain that form the terminals of the anterior arches of the fornix

234.  medulla oblongata

     lower or hindmost part of the brain

235.  mesencephalon

     the middle portion of the brain

236.  midbrain

     the middle portion of the brain

237.  myelencephalon

     the posterior part of the hindbrain in developing vertebrates; forms the medulla oblongata in adults

238.  neencephalon

     the part of the brain having the most recent phylogenetic origin; the cerebral cortex and related parts

239.  neoencephalon

     the part of the brain having the most recent phylogenetic origin; the cerebral cortex and related parts

240.  nervus opticus

     the cranial nerve that serves the retina

241.  nucleus niger

     a layer of deeply pigmented grey matter in the midbrain

242.  optic nerve

     the cranial nerve that serves the retina

243.  optic tract

     the cranial nerve that serves the retina

244.  paleocerebellum

     the anterior lobe of the cerebellum which was one of the earliest parts of the hindbrain to develop in mammals

245.  pineal eye

     a sensory structure capable of light reception located on the dorsal side of the diencephalon in various reptiles

246.  pituitary body

     the master gland of the endocrine system

247.  pons

     a band of nerve fibers linking the medulla oblongata and the cerebellum with the midbrain

248.  pons Varolii

     a band of nerve fibers linking the medulla oblongata and the cerebellum with the midbrain

249.  prosencephalon

     the anterior portion of the brain

250.  RAS

     the network in the reticular formation that serves an alerting or arousal function

251.  respiratory center

     the center in the medulla oblongata and pons that integrates sensory information about the level of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood and determines the signals to be sent to the respiratory muscles

252.  reticular activating system

     the network in the reticular formation that serves an alerting or arousal function

253.  reticular formation

     a complex neural network in the central core of the brainstem; monitors the state of the body and functions in such processes as arousal and sleep and attention and muscle tone

254.  RF

     a complex neural network in the central core of the brainstem; monitors the state of the body and functions in such processes as arousal and sleep and attention and muscle tone

255.  rhombencephalon

     the posterior portion of the brain including cerebellum and brainstem

256.  second cranial nerve

     the cranial nerve that serves the retina

257.  spinal fluid

     clear liquid produced in the ventricles of the brain

258.  substantia nigra

     a layer of deeply pigmented grey matter in the midbrain

259.  superior colliculus

     an essential visual center between the retina and the striate cortex

260.  telencephalon

     the anterior division of the forebrain

261.  thalamus

     large egg-shaped structure of gray matter located in the center of the brain

262.  third eye

     a sensory structure capable of light reception located on the dorsal side of the diencephalon in various reptiles

263.  thalmencephalon

     the posterior division of the forebrain

264.  vermis

     the narrow central part of the cerebellum between the two hemispheres

265.  vermis cerebelli

     the narrow central part of the cerebellum between the two hemispheres

266.  superego

     that part of the unconscious mind that acts as a conscience

267.  identity

     the characteristics by which a thing or person is known

268.  individuality

     the quality of being a single thing or person

269.  identification

     the act of designating something

270.  personhood

     being a person

271.  anal personality

     (psychoanalysis) a personality characterized by meticulous neatness and suspicion and reserve; said to be formed in early childhood by fixation during the anal stage of development (usually as a consequence of toilet training)

272.  anal retentive personality

     (psychoanalysis) a personality characterized by meticulous neatness and suspicion and reserve; said to be formed in early childhood by fixation during the anal stage of development (usually as a consequence of toilet training)

273.  gender identity

     your identity as it is experienced with regard to your individuality as male or female, both male and female, or neither; awareness normally begin in infancy and is reinforced during adolescence

274.  genital personality

     (psychoanalysis) the mature personality which is not dominated by infantile pleasure drives

275.  narcissistic personality

     personality marked by self-love and self-absorption

276.  obsessive-compulsive personality

     personality characterized by a strong need to repeat certain acts or rituals

277.  oral personality

     (psychoanalysis) a personality characterized either by generous optimism or aggressive and ambitious selfishness; formed in early childhood by fixation during the oral stage of development

278.  personableness

     the complex of attributes that make a person socially attractive

279.  personal identity

     the distinct personality of an individual regarded as a persisting entity

280.  confederate

     united in a league

281.  disposition

     your usual mood

282.  gender

     properties that distinguish organisms on the basis of sex

283.  depression

     a sunken or lowered geological formation

284.  psychological

     mental or emotional as opposed to physical in nature

285.  daze

     confusion characterized by lack of clarity

286.  trance

     a psychological state induced by a magical incantation

287.  nirvana

     the beatitude that transcends the cycle of reincarnation

288.  euphoria

     a feeling of great elation

289.  mania

     an irrational but irresistible motive for a belief or action

290.  dysphoria

     abnormal depression and discontent

291.  phobia

     an anxiety disorder characterized by irrational fear

292.  anxiety

     a vague unpleasant emotion in anticipation of a misfortune

293.  hysteria

     state of violent mental agitation

294.  deja vu

     the experience of thinking a new situation already occurred

295.  aphasia

     inability to use language because of a brain lesion

296.  amnesia

     partial or total loss of memory

297.  daze

     confusion characterized by lack of clarity

298.  trance

     a psychological state induced by a magical incantation

299.  nirvana

     the beatitude that transcends the cycle of reincarnation

300.  euphoria

     a feeling of great elation

301.  mania

     an irrational but irresistible motive for a belief or action

302.  dysphoria

     abnormal depression and discontent

303.  phobia

     an anxiety disorder characterized by irrational fear

304.  anxiety

     a vague unpleasant emotion in anticipation of a misfortune

305.  hysteria

     state of violent mental agitation

306.  deja vu

     the experience of thinking a new situation already occurred

307.  aphasia

     inability to use language because of a brain lesion

308.  amnesia

     partial or total loss of memory

309.  behaviourism

     an approach to psychology that emphasizes observable measurable behavior

310.  contempt

     lack of respect accompanied by a feeling of intense dislike

311.  fear

     an emotion in anticipation of some specific pain or danger

312.  anger

     the state of being very annoyed

313.  sadness

     the state of experiencing sorrow

314.  joy

     the emotion of great happiness

315.  stress

     special emphasis attached to something

316.  process

     a particular course of action intended to achieve a result

317.  psychology

     the science of mental life

318.  introvert

     a person who tends to shrink from social contacts

319.  heuristic

     a commonsense rule to help solve some problem

320.  altruism

     the quality of unselfish concern for the welfare of others

321.  zygote

     a fertilized egg

322.  adoption

     proceeding creating a parent-child relation between persons

323.  fraternal

     like or characteristic of or befitting a brother

324.  pathological

     relating to the study of diseases

325.  pathology

     the branch of medical science that studies diseases

326.  temperament

     your usual mood

327.  heredity

     the transmission of genetic factors to the next generation

328.  polarization

     having a relation between two opposite attributes

329.  trait

     a distinguishing feature of your personal nature

330.  ion

     a particle that is electrically charged positive or negative

331.  impermeable

     preventing especially liquids to pass or diffuse through

332.  homeostasis

     metabolic equilibrium maintained by biological mechanisms

333.  volitional

     with deliberate intention

334.  somatic

     characteristic of the body as opposed to the mind or spirit

335.  lesion

     any localized abnormal structural change in a bodily part

336.  parasympathetic

     of or relating to the parasympathetic nervous system

337.  olfactory

     of or relating to the sense of smell

338.  aphasia

     inability to use language because of a brain lesion

339.  gustatory

     of or relating to the sense of taste

340.  agnosia

     inability to recognize objects by use of the senses

341.  transduction

     the process whereby a transducer accepts energy in one form and gives back related energy in a different form

342.  proprioception

     the ability to sense the position and location and orientation and movement of the body and its parts

343.  gustation

     the faculty or act of tasting

344.  cochlear

     of or relating to the cochlea of the ear

345.  gustatory

     of or relating to the sense of taste

346.  vestibular

     relating to the sense of equilibrium

347.  photochemical

     of or relating to or produced by the effects of light on chemical systems

348.  operant

     having influence or producing an effect

349.  vicarious

     experienced at secondhand

350.  stimulus

     any information or event that acts to arouse action

351.  parsimonious

     excessively unwilling to spend

352.  contagion

     an incident in which an infectious disease is transmitted

353.  nomothetic

     relating to or involving the search for abstract universal principles

354.  idiographic

     relating to or involving the study of individuals

355.  parsimony

     extreme stinginess

356.  synonym

     a word that expresses the same or similar meaning

357.  androgynous

     having both male and female characteristics

358.  masculine

     associated with men and not with women

359.  feminine

     associated with women and not with men

360.  necrophilia

     an irresistible sexual attraction to dead bodies

361.  holistic

     emphasizing the organic relation between parts and the whole

362.  ambivalent

     uncertain or unable to decide about what course to follow

363.  introspection

     contemplation of your own thoughts and desires and conduct

364.  metric

     based on a decimal unit of measurement

365.  taxonomy

     a classification of organisms based on similarities

366.  epistemology

     the philosophical theory of knowledge

367.  empiricism

     the doctrine that knowledge derives from experience

368.  rationalism

     the doctrine that reason is the basis for regulating conduct

369.  logical positivism

     the form of empiricism that bases all knowledge on perceptual experience (not on intuition or revelation)

370.  lexicon

     a reference book containing an alphabetical list of words

371.  syntax

     the study of the rules for forming admissible sentences

372.  maturational

     relating to or involved in full development

373.  prevalence

     the quality of being widespread

374.  incidence

     the relative frequency of occurrence of something

375.  maladaptive

     showing faulty adaptation

376.  psychopathology

     the branch of psychology concerned with abnormal behavior

377.  dopamine

     a monoamine neurotransmitter found in the brain and essential for the normal functioning of the central nervous system; as a drug (trade names Dopastat and Intropin) it is used to treat shock and hypotension

378.  serotonin

     a neurotransmitter involved in e.g. sleep and depression and memory

379.  norepinephrine

     a catecholamine precursor of epinephrine that is secreted by the adrenal medulla and also released at synapses

380.  precipitating

     bringing on suddenly or abruptly

381.  precipitate

     bring about abruptly

382.  predisposed

     made susceptible

383.  perpetuate

     cause to continue or prevail

384.  prognostic

     of or relating to prediction

385.  diathesis

     constitutional predisposition to a particular disease or abnormality

386.  inalterable

     not capable of being changed or altered

387.  beneficence

     the quality of being kind or helpful or generous

388.  maleficence

     doing or causing evil

389.  confidentiality

     discretion in keeping secret information

390.  tutelary

     providing protective supervision

391.  maladaptive

     showing faulty adaptation

392.  prognostic

     of or relating to prediction

393.  onset

     the beginning or early stages

394.  course

     a connected series of events or actions or developments

395.  prosody

     the study of poetic meter and the art of versification

396.  phoneme

     a distinct speech sound in a particular language

397.  eccentric

     conspicuously or grossly unconventional or unusual

398.  contemptible

     deserving of scorn or disrespect

Glossary

5 - 7 year shift

Developmental period during which children become more intentional and systematic their planning and goal pursuit

absolute threshold

the minimum amount of stimulus energy that can be detected in ideal conditions

Acceptance and Commitment Therapy

encourages clients to accept negative and troubling thoughts

accommodation

the process through which the lens changes its shape to focus light onto the retina

acetylcholine

a common neurotransmitter in the peripheral nervous system

achievement test

a test designed to measure whether the test taker has met particular learning goals

acquisition

the period during which classical conditioning occurs

action potential

an electrical signal (voltage) that travels down a neuron’s axon; it results from the movement of positive ions into and out of the axon

activation

the electrical charging of a neuron, which readies it to communicate with other neurons

activation-synthesis theory

a theory that proposes that dreams begin when random bursts of neural activity occur in the brainstem while in REM sleep. These neural signals reach the forebrain, especially the limbic system, where the brain tries to weave them into a coherent story.

active listening

a communication strategy in which the listener paraphrases what he or she hears without evaluating.

actor-observer bias

our tendency to attribute others’ behavior to dispositional causes, and our own behavior to situational causes.

adaptive traits

specific traits that help an individual to survive

adoption studies

a method in behavior genetics in which children with different biological parents but the same adopted family are compared in order to assess the impact of a shared environment

adrenal glands

glands located on top of the kidneys; they release glucocorticoids and epinephrine as part of the stress response

affective forecasting

predicting our future emotions, usually in response to some present or possible future event

agender

denotes a person who does not identify with a gender

aggression

any behavior that is intended to harm another living being.

agonist

a drug that increases the activity of a type of neurotransmitter

agoraphobia

an anxiety disorder marked by anxiety about being unable to escape from or get help in a situation in which a panic attack is expected

algorithm

a step-by-step procedure that guarantees a correct solution to a problem

alpha waves

reasonably fast, fairly strong brain waves that are produced right before you fall asleep

Alzheimer’s disease

a progressive, fatal disorder characterized by memory loss, other cognitive symptoms, and personality change

amniotic sac

the fluid-filled sac that houses the developing fetus; it acts as a shock absorber and temperature regulator.

amygdala

an almond shaped forebrain area that is important for emotions

analogical reasoning

a problem solving technique that involves noting similarities between concepts or problems

androgens

a group of hormones that play a role in male traits and reproductive activity; a fetus that is exposed to androgens will develop male sex organs.

anhedonia

loss of interest or pleasure in nearly all activities

anion

a negatively charged particle

anorexia nervosa

an eating disorder in which the affected individual is extremely anxious about being overweight and adopts extreme weight-control measures. To be diagnosed, the individual must weigh less than the minimum normal weight (for age, gender, and sexual development level)

antagonist

a drug that decreases the activity of a type of neurotransmitter

antisocial personality disorder

a personality disorder marked by a lack of regard for the rights of other people

anxiety

a feeling roughly similar to nervousness or fear

anxiety disorder

a category of psychological disorders marked by very distressing anxiety or maladaptive behaviors to relieve anxiety

appreciation

acknowledging a positive situation, finding meaning, and experiencing positive emotions connected to it

aptitude test

a test designed to predict the test taker’s future performance

arcuate fasciculus

a tract of nerve fibers connecting Broca's area to Wernicke's area

argument

a set of statements in which the beginning statements lead to a conclusion

assimilation

interpreting a new experience or piece of information by understanding that it is an example of an existing scheme

associative learning

learning based on making a connection between two events in the environment, or stimuli (classical conditioning), or between behavior and its consequences (operant conditioning)

astonishing hypothesis

that idea that everything you think and feel can be traced to electrochemical activity in your brain

attachment

an emotional bond between a child and another specific person, often (but not necessarily) a parent

attitude

a psychological tendency that people express by evaluating some entity with favor or disfavor

attribution

the process of explaining the causes of someone else’s behavior

attribution error

Mistaken conclusion that someone’s behavior is a result of personality only and not any possible environmental reasons.

audience design

In conversation, when a speaker assesses that different listeners require that different information be provided in order to make an utterance understandable. As a result, we tailor our utterances to the specific audience we are talking to.

auditory encoding

encoding from working memory into long-term memory by paying attention to the sounds of words only

authoritarian parenting

parenting style characterized by demands for unquestioning obedience; often makes use of harsh and physical punishment

authoritarian personality

a personality marked by high conventionality, a need to submit to authority, a commitment to harsh punishment, and general hostility

authoritative parenting

parenting style characterized by firm rules for children, along with explanation of the rules and an opportunity for children to have some autonomy

autocratic leadership

sometimes called directive or authoritarian leadership, it is leading through ordering; the leader does all of the decision making

autonomic nervous system

the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and internal organs.

availability heuristic

udging the frequency or likelihood of some event type according to how easily examples of the event can be called to mind (i.e., how available they are to memory)

axon

the single tube in a neuron that carries an electrical signal away, toward other neurons

babbling

a language stage that begins between 6-9 months; consists of strings of vowel and consonant sounds

basal metabolic rate

the energy requirements for the basic functions of life.

basilar membranebehavior

any observable response in an organism

behavior genetics

the psychological subfield that estimates the contribution of genes and environment for specific psychological tendencies and traits

belief perseverance

The tendency to hold onto beliefs even in the face of contradictory evidence.

bias

an inclination, tendency, leaning, or prejudice

bigender

denotes a person who identifies with both genders

binocular cues

distance cues that require the use of two eyes

biofeedback

a tool that allows you to see aspects of your physical state, such as muscular tension or heart rate, as some visual stimulus, such as a number

biopsychology

the subfield of psychology that focuses on the biological influences of mental processes and behavior

blastocyst

an embryo about one week after fertilization (in humans); it resembles a hollowed-out ball of cells.

body mass index (BMI)

a measure of weight in relation to height; BMI is used to estimate whether an individual is overweight or obese

bottom-up processing

perceptual processing that leads to recognition by beginning with individual features in the world and “building up” a final recognition

brain waves

synchronized pattern of brain activity that takes place as electrochemical signals flow across neurons

Broca's area

an area in the left frontal lobe important for speech production; it works closely with Wernicke's area in the temporal lobe

Broca’s area

an area in the left frontal lobe that plays a very important role in producing speech.

bulimia nervosa

an eating disorder characterized by periods of binge eating (eating large amounts of food) followed by some behavior intended to counteract the overeating

bystander effect

the common finding that individuals will fail to help others during an emergency.

cannabinoids

neurotransmitters that are chemically similar to THC, the active drug in marijuana

case study

A research method in which a researcher examines an individual in great detail.

Catharsis

the release of anger through the expression of it.

Cattell-Horn-Carroll Theory of Cognitive Ability

A comprehensive theory of human cognitive ability that organizes intelligence in three levels, from the highest general intelligence level, through intermediate broad abilities, and to more than 70 narrow abilities.

central nervous system

the brain and spinal cord; the command center of the nervous system

central route to persuasion

a persuasion strategy that employs solid reasoning and strong arguments.

cerebellum

a brain area located underneath and behind the main part of the brain, it looks like a miniature brain; it is responsible for coordinating movements and helping fine tune cognitive responses

cerebral cortex

the wrinkled surface of the brain that plays important roles in perception, movement, and higher intellectual function

chromosomes

a doubled string of genes; each species has a specific number of chromosomes

chunk

a unit of meaningful information

circadian rhythms

biological patterns of activity throughout the 24-hour day

cisgender

denotes a person who identifies as the gender that matches their biological sex

classical conditioning

a type of associative learning, in which two stimuli are associated, or linked, with each other

client-centered therapy

a humanistic therapy developed by Carl Rogers. It uses unconditional positive regard, genuineness, and empathetic understanding

clinical psychology

the psychology subfield that deals with the understanding and treatment of mental illness or psychological disorders

closure

a Gestalt principle that says that we tend to fill in missing perceptual information

cochlea

a fluid-filled tube that contains hair cells, the auditory receptors

coercive power

power that comes from the ability to threaten punishments if orders are not followed

Cognitive dissonance

an aroused feeling that results from holding two contradictory cognitions at the same time. An individual is motivated to reduce the dissonance.

cognitive neuroscience

a field which combines traditional cognitive psychological research methodology with advanced brain imaging techniques

cognitive-behavioral therapy

a simple combination of methods derived from cognitive theory and behavioral or learning theory

common ground

In conversation, a judgment of the knowledge shared between two people, which allows certain information to go unstated and unexplained

common region

a perceptual principle that says that objects that are found in the same space tend to be grouped together

companionate love

love that is marked by high levels of commitment and emotional intimacy.

complex experiment

An experiment in which a researcher simultaneously manipulates two or more independent variables.

compulsion

a repetitive action or thought (think of it as a physical or mental act) that is intended to reduce the anxiety of an obsession

concept

a mental representation of a category of things in the world

concept map

a pictorial representation of the relationships between a set of related concepts

concrete operations stage

Piaget's third stage of cognitive development; the child can use reversible mental procedures in concrete (as opposed to abstract) situations

conditioned response

in classical conditioning, an organism’s learned response to a conditioned stimulus

conditioned stimulus

In classical conditioning, an environmental event that an organism associates with an unconditioned stimulus; the conditioned stimulus begins to lead to a reaction that is similar to an unconditioned response.

conditioned stimulus (CS)cones

light receptors located mostly in the center of the retina; they are responsible for color vision and visual acuity

confirmation bias

The tendency to notice and pay attention to information that confirms your prior beliefs and to ignore information that disconfirms them.

conformity

engaging in a behavior because others around you have, “going along with the crowd.”

confounding variable

A variable that varies along with the independent variable. If confounding variables are not controlled, the researcher cannot conclude with confidence that any change in the dependent variable was caused by the independent variable. Same as extraneous variable.

connectedness

a Gestalt principle that says that objects that are connected to one another will be grouped together

conscious

the part of the personality consisting of current thoughts

consciousness

awareness of stimuli from the outside world, of our own thoughts and feelings, and of our selves

conservation

the realization that the amount of a given substance does not change, even though its appearance might

contempt

the feeling that you are better than someone else

content validity

a technique of estimating validity by having an expert judge whether the test samples from an appropriate range of skills and knowledge

context effects

a top-down processing effect in which the information that surrounds a target stimulus leads an individual to perceive the stimulus in a way that fits into the context

continuous reinforcement

reinforcement that occurs after every appearance of a behavior. It leads to rapid learning; when the reinforcement stops, extinction is rapid

control group

The group to which the experimental group is compared.

convenience sample

A sample in which the researcher selects participants who are easy or convenient to find.

cooing

a language stage that begins around 2-3 months; mostly consisting of vowel sounds

cornea

the transparent outer surface of the eyeball; it protects the eye and begins focusing light rays

corpus callosum

a brain structure that connects the left to the right hemisphere

correlation

A relationship between two variables.

correlation coefficient

A statistic that measures the direction and strength of a relationship between two numerical variables. The sign of the correlation coefficient indicates the direction, and the number itself indicates the strength of the relationship.

correlational research

Research conducted with the goal to discover relationships or associations between variables

correspondence bias

our tendency to attribute people’s behavior to dispositional causes.

correspondence bias/fundamental attribution error

our tendency to attribute people’s behavior to dispositional causes.

counterconditioning

replacing a conditioned response with an incompatible new conditioned response; it is the basis of some behavioral therapies

craniometry

a discredited belief that a person’s skull size and shape reflected their race, intelligence, morality, and other characteristics.

critical thinking

Thinking like a scientist in your everyday life for the purpose of drawing correct conclusions. It entails skepticism; an ability to identify biases, distortions, omissions, and assumptions; and excellent deductive and inductive reasoning, and problem solving skills.

crystallized intelligence

an individual’s accumulated store of knowledge and the ability to apply the knowledge to solve problems

Culture

knowledge, customs and other behavior that are created by a group (such as a society, ethnic group, or nation), and that members learn by being part of that group.

declarative memory

memory for facts and episodes

deductive reasoning

a type of reasoning in which the conclusion is guaranteed to be true any time the statements leading up to it are true

deductively valid argument

an argument for which true beginning statements guarantee that the conclusion is true

defense mechanisms

strategies that the ego uses to relieve anxiety that results from unwanted impulses

defensive pessimism

a strategy of lowering one’s expectations in a situation in which failure might damage self-esteem

delta waves

slow brain waves that occur during deep sleep (Stage 3 and 4)

delusions

false beliefs

dementia

a serious loss of cognitive abilities as a result of disease or disorder

democratic leadership

sometimes called participatory leadership, the leader shares some of the power and allows subordinates to participate in decision making

dendrite

one of the many branches on a neuron that receive incoming signals

dependent variable

The supposed effect. This is what the researcher measures.

descriptive norm

a social norm that is based on the actual behavior that group members do

descriptive research

Research conducted with the goal of describing individuals' or groups' characteristics.

descriptive statistics

Statistical procedures that are used to summarize information.

desirable difficulties

strategies that are difficult to use and make you feel as if you are not learning, but lead to much more effective and lasting learning

difference thresholddifference threshold (just noticeable difference, or JND)

the smallest difference between two stimuli that can be detected

diffusion

the tendency for particles to move from areas of high concentration to areas of lower concentration

diffusion of responsibility

one of the reasons for the bystander effect; individuals fail to take responsibility to help in an emergency when other people are present.

discrimination

treating people differently because of stereotyping and prejudice.

display rules

rules for how and when emotions should be expressed outwardly.

dispositional attribution

an explanation of someone’s behavior that focuses on stable personality traits of the actor

dispositional attribution:

an explanation of someone’s behavior that focuses on the stable personality traits of the actor.

dissociative disorders

a category of psychological disorders marked by dissociation, a split in consciousness

dissociative identity disorder

a dissociative disorder marked by a split between parts of the personality. The sufferer exhibits two or more separate personalities.

divide-and-conquer strategy

A strategy in which individual researchers choose small elements from a broad theory or from a complex phenomenon, and they develop research ideas that pertain to those specific elements.

divided attention

the process of focusing on more than one stimulus or task at the same time, often called multitasking

DNA

deoxyribonucleic acid; these are the molecules that make up genes

dominant gene

the gene version that codes the trait that the offspring will inherit when the parents contribute different versions

dopamine

a neurotransmitter that is released in the midbrain and some areas of the forebrain that is related to reward

drive

the internal body state that characterizes a motivation

DSM-5

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th Edition. This is the book that psychologists and psychiatrists use to diagnose psychological disorders.

Dunning-Kruger effect

individuals who are less competent tend to overestimate their abilities more than individuals who are more competent do

durability bias

the tendency to overestimate how long our future emotions will last

EEG (electroencephalograph) machine

a machine that records the general level and speed of neural activity in different parts of the brain through electrodes that are placed on the scalp

ego

the part of the personality that juggles the demands of the id, the superego, and the real-world consequences of our actions.

egocentrism

the ability to reason from an individual’s point of view only

elaboration likelihood model

a theory that explains how different attempts to persuade others will be successful based on the targets’ likelihood that they will scrutinize the attempt.

elaborative verbal rehearsal

an encoding technique that encourages semantic processing by restating to-be-remembered information in your own words, as if teaching it to someone else

embryo

the developing cells during the early period of gestation, the first 8-weeks in humans.

Emotion

brain-and-body states that are experienced as strong feelings, such as arousal, pleasure, or displeasure

emotion-focused coping

a coping strategy in which people seek to manage their distressing feelings

Emotions 

brain-and-body states that are experienced as strong feelings, such as arousal, pleasure, or displeasure

empathy

the ability to identify with someone else’s emotions.

empirical

Derived from experience. Empirical observations are the fundamental basis of science

encoding

putting information into memory systems

endocrine system

the system of hormone-producing glands located throughout the body

endorphins

a class of neurotransmitters that are chemically similar to opiate drugs; they function to relieve pain and elevate mood

engaged followershipepinephrine

commonly known as adrenaline, it functions as a neurotransmitter in the fast stress response, and a hormone in the slow stress response

episodic memory

the part of declarative memory that refers to specific events or episodes from someone’s life

erogenous zones

different body areas through which the id derives pleasure during the psychosexual stages.

estrogens

a group of hormones that play a role in female traits and reproductive activity

eugenics

a misuse of evolutionary principles which attempted to selectively breed humans to remove “unwanted” traits from humanity

event-related potential (ERP)

Brain-imaging techniques cannot observe neurogenesis, but they can reveal areas with more or fewer neurons than expected, often assumed a result of the rate of neurogenesis (Shelene, 2003).

evidence-based practice

the use of therapies that have been justified by research

evolutionary psychology

the subfield of psychology that focuses on understanding the human mind/brain from an evolutionary perspective

excitatory signal

a signal entering at a neuron’s dendrites or cell body instructing the neuron to transmit its own signal

excitement

phase of sexual response when genitals become aroused.

expectation effects

a top-down processing effect in which having an expectation leads an individual to perceive some stimulus to be consistent with the expectation

experiment

A research method in which the researcher manipulates a supposed cause and measures the supposed effect. It is the research method that allows one to conclude that one variable causes another one.

experimental group

The group in which the researcher is interested.

expert power

power that comes from subordinates’ belief that the leader has greater knowledge about the important tasks involved in the job

external validity

The degree to which the results of an experiment can be generalized to the outside world.

extinction

in classical conditioning, the fading away of a conditioned response after repeated presentation of a conditioned stimulus without the unconditioned stimulus

extraneous variable

A variable that varies along with the independent variable. If extraneous variables are not controlled, the researcher cannot conclude with confidence that any change in the dependent variable was caused by the independent variable.

extrinsic motivation

motivations that are associated with the benefits associated with achieving a goal.

factor analysis

a statistical technique that reduces a large number of individually scaled items into a small number of related dimensions, or factors.

false consensus

The tendency to overestimate the degree to which other people agree with us.

false dichotomy

A type of oversimplification in which a potential explanations are presented as a strict either/or possibility. As a result, a phenomenon is incorrectly explained as resulting from one cause to the exclusion of all others.

feature detectors

specialized neurons in the primary visual cortex that fire only when you are looking at a specific feature, such as a vertical line or a diagonal line

fetal alcohol effect

a condition in children that results from moderate levels of alcohol exposure during the mother's pregnancy.

fetal alcohol syndrome

a condition in a child that results from alcohol exposure during the mother's pregnancy.

fetus

the developing baby after 8 weeks of gestation.

fight-or-flight responsefigure-ground perception

a Gestalt principle that says that we can shift our attention to pick out one part of a scene and to shift the rest to the background

fixation

when a problem solver gets stuck looking at a problem a particular way and cannot change his or her representation of it (or his or her intended solution strategy)

fixation (Freud)

when an early-life conflict is resolved poorly, the id gets stuck in a psychosexual stage, and the adult ego must use energy to continue to try to resolve it throughout life

flight-or-flight response

the common name for the set of arousing responses produced by the sympathetic nervous system; they are designed to prepare the body to face some physical danger by fighting it or fleeing from it

flooding

a behavior therapy in which a client is exposed immediately to the feared stimuli of a phobia in an unescapable situation

fluid intelligence

an individual’s speedy reasoning ability

forebrain

structures of the brain that process sensory information, regulate emotions, and carry out higher intellectual functions

formal operations stage

Piaget's fourth, and final, stage of cognitive development; individual can use reversible mental procedures in any situation, can think logically and hypothetically

fovea

the area in the center of the retina (with many cones); it is the area with the best visual acuity

fraternal birth order effect

theory that having older brothers increases the likelihood that a male will have a same-gender orientation.

free association

a common technique used in psychodynamic therapy, it involves having a client say whatever comes to mind

frequency distribution

A type of chart that shows how many research participants received each possible score (or gave each possible rating).

frequency theoryfriendship

a relationship between two people that they choose to create and is based on mutual affection

frontal lobes

the lobes in the front of the cortex that contain the prefrontal cortex and the primary motor cortex

functional fixedness

a specific type of fixation in which a problem solver cannot think of a new use for an object that already has a function

functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)

a brain imaging technique that measures the release of oxygen from blood cells in the brain, allowing researchers to track brain structures and their functions

fundamental attribution error

our tendency to attribute people’s behavior to dispositional causes.

gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)

the most common inhibitory neurotransmitter

ganglion cellsgender identity

a person’s inner feelings about being male or female.

gender nonconformity

when a person behaves or dresses like the societal expectations of another gender.

gender role

the behaviors that a particular culture finds acceptable for males versus females.

genderfluid

denotes a person whose gender identity changes over time

genes

the basic unit of material that gets transmitted from parents to offspring

genome

the complete set of all genes in a species

genotype

the genetic coding that underlies a specific observed trait

Gestalt principles

a set of principles that describe how be organize sensory input, mostly by grouping or separating individual parts; they were originally discovered by Gestalt psychologists in the early 20th century

Gestalt psychologistsglia

types of cells, other than neurons, in the nervous system

glucocorticoids

hormones that are released by the adrenal glands as a major part of the slow stress response

glutamate

the most common excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain

goal

cognitive representation of an outcome that influences our thoughts, evaluations, emotions, and behaviors.

gonads

sex glands; they produce sex hormones.

good continuation

a Gestalt principle that says that we have a preference for seeing patterns that are smooth continuous forms

gratitude

being thankful to an outside source for some positive situation or outcome

groupthink

a situation in which a cohesive group with a strong leader engages in poor decision-making

habituation

non-associative learning type in which the repetition of some stimulus over time leads to a reduced reaction to the stimulus

habituation (research technique)

a technique that researchers use to demonstrate infant memory by showing that infants look longer at new objects than familiar ones

hair cells

the auditory receptors; they vibrate when stimulation from the oval window reaches them

hammer, anvil, and stirrup

the three bones that are connected to the tympanic membrane; they transmit vibrations from the tympanic membrane to the inner ear

headline effect

A type of oversimplification in which some research results are distorted through the creation of a very short summary, a headline as if in a newspaper.

hedonic adaptation

a phenomenon in which we tend to adapt to our circumstances and judge our happiness by comparing the current situation to the recent past

heredity

the biological transmission of traits from parents to offspring

heritability

the proportion of variability in a trait throughout a group that is related to genetic differences in the group

heuristic

a shortcut strategy that we use to make judgments and solve problems. Although they are easy to use, they do not guarantee correct judgments and solutions

higher-order conditioning

a later round of classical conditioning in which a former conditioned stimulus becomes an unconditioned stimulus and then becomes associated with a new conditioned stimulus

hindbrain

the structures of the brain most closely related to basic survival functions

hindsight bias

The mistaken belief that some event or explanation is something that you already knew or that you foresaw.

hippocampus

a forebrain area near the thalamus that is important for storing memories

hostile aggression

aggression fueled by anger.

Hot cognition

changes in thinking and reasoning that result from emotions and motivations.

hubris

a good feeling about yourself (similar to pride) that is unrelated to any specific actions

humanistic psychology

a psychological approach based on the belief that human beings have a natural orientation to develop and reach their full potential.

humanistic therapies

a type of psychological therapy that assumes that people have a basic orientation toward growth; the therapist’s main role is to help clients to find the ability to solve their problems within themselves

hypersomnia

sleeping too much

hypnagogic sensations

brief dreamlike images and sensations that are produced during Stage 1 / NREM 1 sleep

hypnosis

a method that enables one person (the hypnotized subject) to focus his or her attention on another individual (the hypnotist) or on stimuli that the hypnotist emphasizes. The hypnotist then gives suggestions with which the hypnotized subject is likely to comply.

hypomanic episode

a four day period over which a person experiences the same symptoms as required for a manic episode

hypothalamus

a forebrain area just below the thalamus; it plays a role in motivation and it controls the pituitary gland

hypothesis

A prediction that is generated from a theory.

id

the part of the personality that contains our unconscious biological drives.

identity

people’s sense of self, the important aspects of their lives that make them unique

impact bias

the tendency to overestimate the intensity of our future emotions 

implicit attitudes

attitudes that people are unable or unwilling to express openly but nevertheless affect their behavior (see implicit bias)

implicit bias

biases that people are unable or unwilling to express openly but nevertheless affect their behavior (see implicit attitude)

implicit biasesincentive

an external cue that directs motivated behavior

independent variable

The supposed cause. This is what the researcher manipulates.

inductive reasoning

a type of reasoning in which we make judgments about likelihood from sets of evidence

inductively strong argument

an inductive argument in which the beginning statements lead to a conclusion that is probably true

infantile amnesia

adults’ near complete lack of memory for events from early childhood

inference

an assumption about the truth of something that is not stated. Inferences come from our prior knowledge and experience, and from logical reasoning

inferential statistics

Statistical procedures that are used to draw conclusions, or inferences.

ingratiation

a peripheral route persuasion technique that involves making oneself more appealing by using flattery or doing favors (or some similar activity) for someone

ingroup

social group to which a person psychologically identifies as being a member

inhibitory signal

a signal entering at a neuron’s dendrites or cell body instructing the neuron to not transmit its own signal

injunctive norm

a social norm that is based on the behaviors that are approved or disapproved by a group.

insight

a sudden realization of a solution to a problem

institutional review boardinstitutional review board (IRB)

A committee composed of members of an institution where research is to be conducted and community members, whose job it is to approve or disapprove individual research projects and to ensure that ethical guidelines are followed when those projects are conducted.

instrumental aggression

aggression that is used to achieve some other end.

internal consistency reliability

a technique for measuring reliability by examining the similarity of an individual’s sub-score for different parts of the test

interpersonal therapy

a modern offshoot of psychodynamic therapy that focuses on conflicts or problems in a client’s current relationships

intimacy

understanding and sharing private thoughts, fears, and feelings with another person

intrinsic motivation

motivations that are associated with the process of pursuing a goal. 

ion

an electrically charged particle

iris

a muscle that controls the amount of light entering the eye by expanding or contracting the size of the pupil

job analysis

a detailed description of a job; it can contain information about the types of tasks to be performed, the skills required for a worker to succeed at the job, or both

job enrichment

a technique to increase employees’ motivation by giving them more responsibility and independence

K-complexes

bursts of a single higher-voltage wave that occur in Stage 2 sleep

lateral inhibition

the process through which our visual system enhances contrast by reducing the firing of neighboring cells when a target area is stimulated by light

learned helplessness

a phenomenon in which an individuals might become depressed because they learn that they have no control over their situation and give up

learning

changing knowledge and behavior as a result of experience

lens

located right behind the pupil, it focuses light to land on the retina

levels of processing

strategies that affect how well a memory is encoded. Craik and Tulving’s research demonstrates that deeper processing (that is, semantic encoding) leads to better memory than shallower processing (that is, encoding based on auditory and visual properties)

light receptors

neurons at the back of the eye that react to light; there are two kinds: rods and cones

limbic system

a group of forebrain areas that are important in emotions, among other functions

localization

the process of perceiving where something is - how far away and in which direction - and whether or not it is moving

long-term memory

an essentially unlimited, nearly permanent memory storage system

longitudinal study

a research technique in which groups of participants are followed over time in order to examine changes in individuals

manic episode

the active phase of bipolar I disorder. Often involves high energy and good mood; it can also include irritability, inflated self-esteem, feelings of grandiosity, and delusions.

materialism

placing importance on money, possessions, image, and status

mean

The arithmetic average of a distribution (add up all scores and divide by the number of scores); a measure of central tendency.

measure of central tendency

A descriptive statistic that conveys what a typical score of a distribution is.

measure of variability

A descriptive statistic that conveys how spread out a distribution is.

median

The score in the middle of a distribution (half the scores are above, half are below); a measure of central tendency.

medulla

the structure at the base of the brain where it begins to widen after leaving the spinal cord; it is responsible for heart beat and breathing

melatonin

a hormone that is released by the pineal gland and makes us sleepy

memory construction

the process of building up a recollection of an event, rather than “playing” a memory, as if it were a recording

memory retrieval

withdrawing information from long-term memory into working memory

mental operations

reversible mental procedures that can be used to solve problems or reason about the world

mental processes

functions within the brain

mental set

a specific type of fixation in which a problem solver gets stuck using the same solution strategy that has been successful in the past

mere exposure

an increase in affection or preference for an object or person resulting from repeated exposure to it.

metacognition

knowledge about one’s own cognitive processes; thinking about your thinking

midbrain

structures of the brain closely related to processing sensory information and movements

migration

the movement of neurons to their point of origin to their eventual location in the developing brain.

Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy

a therapy that explicitly combines ideas from cognitive therapy with mindfulness meditation

misinformation effect

a memory distortion that results when misleading information is presented to people after an event has occurred

mode

The most frequently occurring score in a distribution; a measure of central tendency.

modern racism

racial stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination that can be hidden behind some other motive or belief.

monocular cues

distance cues that require the use of a single eye only. They include linear perspective, interposition, relative size, relative height, texture gradient, and motion parallax.

mood

an affective state that is less intense and longer-lasting than emotions.

Mood congruent memory

a phenomenon in which people tend to remember events that are consistent with their current emotions or moods.

mood disorders

a category of psychological disorders that have a disturbed mood as the main feature. They include depressive disorders and bipolar disorders from the DSM-5.

motivated skepticism

an individual's emotions or motivation lead them to think critically only about information that disagrees with what they believe.

motivation

an internal desire or need that energizes an individual and directs his or her behavior.

motor neuronsmultimode model of selective attention

a model of attention that suggests that our attentional filter is flexible; we can monitor the contents of filtered-out information depending on tasks demands

multisensory enhancement

process through which input from separate sensory modalities combine to produce a perception that is stronger than the individual contribution of the modalities

muscle mass

the amount of lean muscle tissue in a body.

myelin

a substance that covers many of the brain’s neuron’s axons; it protects the axon and speeds up the action potential by allowing it to jump from one non-myelinated section to the next

myelinization

the process in which myelin sheaths develop to cover many axons throughout the nervous system.

naïve (or intuitive) psychology

The search for explanations about human behavior and mental processes without the benefit of scientifically gathered evidence.

natural selection

the key concept in Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution; traits that helped an individual to survive are more likely to be passed from parent to offspring and become more common in future generations

naturalistic observation

 A research method in which a researcher observes participants in their natural environment, without their knowledge and without interfering in the behavior in any way.

need for achievement

a strong motivation to set high standards for oneself, and to work hard to achieve those standards

need for affiliation

a strong motivation to satisfy one’s need for interpersonal relationships

need for power

a strong motivation to influence others

negative punishment

in operant conditioning, punishment that occurs because of the removal of something good

negative reinforcement

in operant conditioning, reinforcement that occurs because of the removal of something bad

negative symptoms

symptoms that represent the loss of normal behavior

neglecting (disengaged) parenting

parenting style characterized by a lack of attention to and care for children

neural network

interconnected group of neurons

neural stem cells

primitive nerve cells that have the ability to develop into any cells of the nervous system.

neural tube

the embryonic precursor to the central nervous system.

neurocognitive modelneurocognitive model of dreaming

a theory that proposes that a specific neural network in the the limbic system, areas surrounding the limbic system, and specific parts of the cortex is responsible for dreaming. Dreams occur when this network becomes active without any external stimulation.

neurogenesis

the creation of new neurons in the nervous system

neuron

the basic cell of the nervous system; our brain has billions of neurons

neuronsneuropsychopharmacological drugs

drugs that work by influencing the neural transmission process in some way

neuropsychopharmacology

the understanding of brain and behavior through the discovery of the neural actions of drugs

neuropsychpharmacology

the study of how drugs affect the neural communication process

neurotransmitter

chemical that carries a neural signal from one neuron to another

neurotransmitters

the chemicals that carry signals between neurons throughout the nervous system

neutral stimulus

In classical conditioning, an environmental event that does not lead to any particular response related to the conditioning situation. This stimulus will become a conditioned stimulus.

nociceptors

touch receptors distributed throughout the body that are responsible for the sensation of pain

non-associative learning

learning, or change, that occurs because of the repetition of a single stimulus over time.

non-heterosexual orientation

sexual orientations that are not heterosexual.

norepinephrine

the main neurotransmitter used by the sympathetic nervous system

nucleus accumbens

a brain area near the hypothalamus that appears to be key for reinforcement and motivated behavior.

obedience

influence of an authority figure over another person

obese

an official designation that corresponds to a BMI of 30 or above

object permanence

the realization that objects exist even when you cannot see them

observation

Any event that is noticed or detected through the senses; observations are what scientists try to organize and explain.

observational learning

learning that occurs through watching others' behavior

obsessions

persistent, uncontrollable, inappropriate thoughts, impulses, or images

obsessive-compulsive disorder

a disorder marked by uncontrollable, inappropriate thoughts, impulses, or images that lead to anxiety (obsessions) and repetitive action or thought that is intended to reduce the anxiety (compulsions)

occipital lobes

the lobes of the cortex in the back; they contain the primary visual cortex

olfaction

our sense of smell

olfactory bulb

a brain area directly above olfaction receptors responsible for processing smells

one-word stage

language stage that happens around the time an infant turns one-year-old; infants can produce one word at a time

operant conditioning

type of associative learning in which a behavior comes to be associated with its consequences

operational definition

A definition of a concept that specifies how it will be measured in a research project.

operational definitionsoptic nerve

the area of the retina where the neural signals leave the eye and are sent to the brain

orgasm

phase of sexual response during which genitals contract rhythmically.

otolith organs and semicircular canals

structures in the inner ear that sense tiling and acceleration of the head in different direction

outgroup

social group to which a person does not identify as a member

oval window

the area connected to the hammer, anvil, and stirrup; it passes vibrations on to the inner ear

ovaries

female sex glands; they produce hormones and eggs.

overconfidence error

A general tendency for people to be more confident in their judgments than they should. It results from several specific biases, including hindsight bias, confirmation bias, and false consensus.

overgeneralization

A type of oversimplification in which some fact or research finding true of one small group is incorrectly generalized to a larger or different group.

oversimplification

A type of oversimplification in which some fact or research finding true of one small group is incorrectly generalized to a larger or different group.

overweight

an official designation that corresponds to a BMI above 25

oxytocin

 a hormone that is released in response to stress and tends to lead to nurturing and affiliative behavior

panic attack

a sudden dramatic increase in anxiety, marked by intense fear and (commonly) a feeling of doom or dread

panic disorder

an anxiety disorder marked repeated unexplained panic attacks

paradoxical sleep

another term for REM sleep, so named because of the apparent contradiction between high levels of activity inside the body and a motionless bod

parasympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body down.

parietal lobes

the lobes of the cortex directly behind the frontal lobes; they contain the primary sensory cortex

partial reinforcement

reinforcement that occurs only after some appearances of a behavior. It leads to slow learning; when the reinforcement stops, extinction is slow

passionate love

love that is marked by intense feelings and physical desire.

perception

the processes through which we interpret or recognize neural signals from sensation

peripheral nervous system

the parts of the nervous system that run throughout the body (everything except the brain and spinal cord)

peripheral route to persuasion

a persuasion strategy that relies on irrelevant cues to persuade.

permissive parenting

parenting style characterized by few demands and rules for children

Permissive parentspersonality

the collection of dispositions that a person brings to any situation

personality disorder

a category of psychological disorders marked by inflexible patterns of behavior or thinking that reflect deviations from a culture’s expectations and lead to impairment or distress

Personality disorderspersonality traits

tendencies that predispose people to act consistently over time and across situations

persuasion

an attempt to influence people when you have no authority over them

phenotype

an observed trait, which might result from different specific gene version combinations

phobia

an anxiety disorder marked by an intense fear or anxiety associated with a specific object or situation

phrenology

the discredited belief that people’s traits and abilities could be determined by examining bumps on their skulls.

pinna

the semi-soft, cartilage-filled structure that is part of the outer ear

pituitary gland

a gland responsible for controlling vital body functions. 

Place holder

A type of oversimplification in which a potential explanations are presented as a strict either/or possibility. As a result, a phenomenon is incorrectly explained as resulting from one cause to the exclusion of all others.

place theory

a theory that states that high frequency sound waves lead to stronger vibrations in the section of the cochlea nearer to the oval window, while lower frequency waves lead to stronger vibrations in the farther out sections

placenta

the structure at the attachment point between the fetus and the mother’s uterus; it allows the exchange of nutrients and waste products and acts as a filter to keep out harmful substances.

plaques

globs of protein that surround the brain’s neurons in Alzheimer’s disease patients

plasticity

the ability of the brain to reorganize itself as a result of learning or in response to damage

plateau

phase of sexual response before orgasm, when breathing, pulse rate and blood pressure increase.

pleasure principle

the principle by which the id operates; it seeks to maximize pleasure by immediate satisfaction of its impulses.

pons

a bulging area above the medulla; transfers information between the brain and spinal cord

positive psychology

a research-based psychological approach that explores how we can enhance positive emotions, such as happiness and optimism.

positive punishment

in operant conditioning, punishment that occurs because of the addition of something bad

positive reinforcement

in operant conditioning, reinforcement that occurs because of the addition of something good (i.e.that is, a reward)

positive symptoms

symptoms that represent the presence of extra and inappropriate behaviors

positron emission tomographypositron emission tomography (PET)

a brain imaging technique that allows researchers to track  glucose consumption in the brain

possible selves

sets of ideal, expected, and feared “selves” that we might become in the future

postdecisional dissonance

the feeling of regret or unhappiness that may occur after we make an important decision

posttraumatic stress disorder

a disorder marked by intense anxiety, nightmares, and avoiding reminders of an extremely stressful event

preconscious

the part of the personality consisting of thoughts that are not conscious but can be brought into consciousness

predictive validity

a technique of estimating validity of an aptitude test by comparing test takers’ actual performance on some task to the performance that was predicted by the test

predisposition

a tendency to possess a certain trait. Genes are said to predispose individuals to develop certain traits in the right environmental conditions.

prefrontal cortex

an area in the frontal lobes involved in judgment and reasoning, and in working memory

prefrontal lobotomy

a surgery in which the frontal lobes are separated from the rest of the brain; the surgery was performed during the 1940’s and 1950’s in the US to try to calm psychiatric patients.

prejudice

a feeling or evaluation of a person who has been stereotyped.

preoperational stage

Piaget's second stage of cognitive development; the child begins to think symbolically

primary auditory cortex

the area of the temporal lobes responsible for the processing of sounds

primary motor cortex

an area in the frontal lobes responsible for directing movement of the body

primary reinforcer

a reinforcer that meets some biological need

primary sensory cortex

the section of the parietal lobes responsible for our sense of touch throughout the body

primary sex characteristics

the maturation of the reproductive organs

primary visual cortex

the area of the occipital lobes involved in the early processing of visual information

priming

the activation of some concept or idea from memory by some related concept

problem

a situation in which we are in an initial state, have a desired goal state, and there is a number of possible intermediate states (i.e., there is no obvious way to get from the initial to the goal state)

problem representation

noticing, comprehending and forming a mental conception of a problem

problem solving heuristic

a shortcut strategy that we use to solve problems. Although they are easy to use, they do not guarantee correct judgments and solutions

problem solving heuristicsproblem-focused coping

a coping strategy that focuses on tackling the problem head on and trying to solve it

procedural memory

memory for skills and procedures

progesterone

a group of hormones that play a role in female traits and reproductive activity

projective test

a psychological test that is purported to reveal aspects of an individual’s personality by the way he or she interprets some ambiguous stimulus

projective testsproprioception

a system with receptors throughout the body that keep track of the body’s position and movement

prospective design

research study that is similar to a longitudinal study in which participants are chosen before the study begins.

proximity

a Gestalt principle that says that objects that are close to one another will be grouped together

psychodynamic therapy

a type of psychotherapy in which the therapist helps the client uncover and resolve hidden conflicts from the past

psychology

the science of behavior and mental processes

psychosexual stages

the stages through which children pass to develop their ego and superego.

puberty

the period during which an individual develops from childhood to sexual maturity.

punishment

in operant conditioning, a consequence of behavior that makes it less likely that the organism will repeat the behavior in the future

pupil

the hole in the center of the eye that allows light to enter and reach the retina

random assignment

The division of participants into experimental and control groups so that each person has an equal chance of being in either group. It ensures that the two groups are equivalent.

random sample

A sample for which every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected.

realistic group conflict

a theory that explains how groups who compete for the same resources will feel prejudice toward each other.

realistic group conflict theory

a theory that explains how groups who compete for the same resources will feel prejudice toward each other.

reality principle

the principle by which the ego operates; it seeks to achieve long-term happiness by realizing that reality dictates that we do not act on some of our impulses.

receptor sites

the sections on cell bodies and dendrites where neurotransmitters land, thus completing the transmission of a signal from one neuron to another

recessive gene

the gene version that codes the trait that the offspring will not inherit when the parents contribute different versions

reciprocal determinism

the interactions between personal factors, behavior, and the environment in the formation of people’s personalities.

recoding

transforming information to be encoded into a different format

referent power

power that comes from subordinates looking to the leader as a role model

reflex

a programmed behavior that newborns can do when they are born.

refractory period

period of time after orgasm in men during which they cannot have another erection or orgasm.

rehearsal

the basic strategy that people use to encode information from working memory into long term memory

reinforcement

in operant conditioning, a consequence of behavior that makes it more likely that the organism will repeat the behavior in the future

relative deprivation

negative feelings that develop when members of a society believe that others have more and that this this unequal distribution is not justified

reliability

the consistency of a test

religiosity

religious commitment

REM sleeprepair attempts

a couple’s attempts to maintain positive behaviors, such as smiling or using humor, while they were discussing conflicts.

replication

The process of repeating a scientific research study. Replication applies both to methods and the results of a study.

representative sample

A sample that resembles that population from which it is drawn.

representativeness heuristicresolution

phase of sexual response during which the body returns to normal.

response

a reaction to something that takes place in the environment (a stimulus)

resting potential

the voltage of a neuron when it is at rest; it results from positive ions outside and negative ions inside the neuron

reticular formation

an area stretched inside the medulla and pons; it is involved in attention and arousal

retina

the surface at the back of the eye; it contains the light receptors, rods and cones

retinal disparity

a binocular cue; the difference between the image projected to the left and right retina is a cue to how far away some object is

retrieval

taking information out of memory systems

retrieval cue

a reminder that leads to the withdrawal of information from long-term memory into working memory

retrieval cuesretrospective design

research study in which adults remember experiences and thoughts from their childhood.

reuptake

the process of reabsorption of neurotransmitters into axon terminal bulbs after their use in a synapse.

reward power

power that comes from the ability to offer incentives, or rewards, if subordinates follow orders

rods

light receptors located mostly outside the center of the retina; they are responsible for night vision

role ambiguity

a situation in which employees do not know their exact roles and job responsibilities

rooting reflex

reflex in which an infant will turn its head toward something that strokes his or her cheek.

Sapir-Whorf hypothesis

the idea that language people use, helps determine (not simply mirror) their thoughts.

scapegoating

blaming an outgroup for current economic, religious, or cultural problems

schadendfreude

the malicious enjoyment of the misfortunes of others

Schadenfreudeschema

a mental representation of a category

scheme

mental framework for organizing knowledge about the world and interpreting new information

schizophrenia

a complex and severe category of psychological disorders marked by disturbed perceptions and thoughts, and bizarre behavior

Science

A set of methods intended to justify people’s beliefs by producing evidence under tightly controlled conditions. A full definition of science also includes its five key properties: empirical, repeatable, self-correcting, reliant on rigorous observation, and objective.

scientist-practitioner gap

tension between researchers and practitioners in psychology

sclera

the white part of the eye

secondary reinforcer

a reinforcer that has the power to increase behavior because the organism learns that it is valuable

secondary sex characteristics

features that signal the maturation of the reproductive organs and help to distinguish men from women.

selective attention

the process of focusing on one stimulus or tasks and screening out others

selective serotonin reuptake inhibitorselective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI)

a class of antidepressant drugs that works by preventing the reabsorption of excess serotonin in synapses

self-efficacy

the belief that one has the ability to perform a task or reach a goal

self-esteem

the degree to which you believe you “measure up” on aspects of your self-concept that you judge important

self-handicapping

engaging in behaviors that sabotage people’s chances at success, so they can lower their expectations and protect their self-esteem

self-reference effect

an encoding technique that encourages semantic processing by applying to-be-remembered information to yourself

Self-regulation

the complex processes through which we change our thoughts, emotions, and actions when pursuing a goal

self-selected sample

A sample for which the participants themselves are completely free to choose to participate. The researcher makes no attempt to control the sample or assure that it is representative.

self-serving biases

strategies that people use to increase their self-esteem

semantic encoding

encoding from working memory into long-term memory by paying attention to the meaning of words

semantic memory

the part of declarative memory that refers to one’s general store of knowledge

sensation

the processes through which we translate physical energy from the world into neural signals and send the signals to the brain for further processing

sensitization

non-associative learning type in which the repetition of some stimulus over time leads to a stronger reaction to the stimulus.

sensorimotor stage

Piaget's first stage of cognitive development; children learn to coordinate sensory and motor movements, and, in the process, begin to understand how the world works

sensory adaptation

the fading away and eventual disappearance of a sensation after a sense organ has received constant input over time

sensory memory

a very short (about one second), extremely accurate memory system that holds information long enough for an individual to pay attention to it

sensory neuronsensory neurons

neurons that receive input from the outside world and send sensory information to the brain

sentence production stage

language stage that happens around two years of age; children begin to produce two- and three-word sentences

seratonin

a neurotransmitter that appears to be involved in mood, aggression, appetite, cognition, vomiting, motor function, perception, sex, and sleep, and additional processes

sex chromosomes

the chromosomes that determine your sex; there are type types, X and Y

sexual orientation

gender to which an individual is sexually attracted and with which the individual is prone to fall in romantic love.

sexual selection

the process through which specific traits are passed on from parents to offspring because they helped an individual win a mate

shaping

in operant conditioning, learning a behavior by reinforcing closer and closer approximations to the final desired behavior

signal detection theory

a mathematical model that describes the relationship between sensory thresholds and personal factors, such as motivation and fatigue

similarity

a Gestalt principle that says that objects that are similar to one another will be grouped together

situation model

a mental representation that is formed based on a person's understanding of language

situational attribution

an explanation of someone’s behavior that focuses on environmental or situational causes.

situational attribution:

an explanation of someone’s behavior that focuses on environmental or situational causes.

skepticism

a way of thinking in which you refrain from drawing a conclusion or changing your mind until good evidence has been provided

sleep deprivation

not getting enough sleep

sleep hygiene

habits that promote sufficient restful sleep

sleep spindles

short bursts (about 2 seconds long) of more rapid brain waves that occur during Stage 2 sleep

social anxiety disorder/social phobias

an anxiety disorder marked by the fear of being judged by others or of being embarrassed in social situations

social cognition

the study of how people process and interpret social information

social constructivism

emphasizes that all cognitive functions are dependent on interactions with others. 

social Darwinism

a misapplication of evolutionary principles that proposed that people who were worse off economically were so because they were evolutionarily less fit

social facilitation

the tendency for people’s performance to improve when other people are present.

social identity

the part of our personal identity that is based on our group memberships.

social norms

rules for the behavior in a particular group

somatic nervous system

the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the skeletal muscles

source misattribution

a memory distortion in which a person misremembers the actual source of a memory

spacing effect

the finding that information that is learned and practiced over a period of time (instead of all at once) is remembered better

spatial resolution

the accuracy level of location information from a brain scanning technique.

specific phobias

an anxiety disorder marked by fears of particular objects or situations

spontaneous recovery

in classical conditioning, the reappearance of a formerly extinct conditioned response after a delay

standard deviation

A measure of variability calculated as the square root of the variance of a distribution.

standardization

comparing a test taker’s score to the scores from a pre-tested group

statistical reasoning error

The error of judging probabilities or likelihoods without collecting sufficient data.

statistical significance

A judgment that a specific research result is unlikely to occur by chance alone, which allows a researcher to conclude that some observed finding is a reliable one.

statistics

Mathematical techniques that researchers use to summarize information and draw conclusions about their research.

stem cells

general purpose, immature neurons that have the capacity to develop into any specific type of neuron

stereotype threatstereotype:

a set of beliefs about an individual person derived from his or her membership in a category.

stigma

a mark of disgrace or infamy or a bad or objectionable characteristic

stimulus

an event or occurrence that takes place in the environment and leads to a response in an individual

stimulus discrimination

in classical conditioning, a situation in which an organism learns to not have a conditioned response in the presence of stimuli similar to the original conditioned stimulus

stimulus generalization

in classical conditioning, a situation in which an organism has a conditioned response in the presence of stimuli similar to the original conditioned stimulus

storage

keeping memories in the brain for future use

stress

an individual’s physical and emotional arousal in response to a threatening event or situation

stress reappraisal

reframing part of the stress response to change its meaning

stress response

commonly known as the “fight or flight response.” The physiological response that results in increased heart rate and blood pressure, diverted blood flow from body systems not needed to face the danger, and increased blood flow to the large muscles of the arms and legs.

stressor

an environmental threat or challenge

stressorsstroke

a loss of blood flow to an area of the brain as a result of the blockage or bursting of a blood vessel. The brain areas die from lack of oxygen, and the consequence is brain damage and some loss of abilities.

Successful Intelligence

Robert Sternberg’s characterization of intelligence as three separate abilities that allow an individual to succeed in the world.

suicide contagion

an individual’s attempt at suicide following the suicide of a close friend or a celebrity

suicide ideation

recurrent thoughts of death or suicide

superego

the part of the personality that represents our inner ideals about the proper behavior.

superior colliculus

an area in the midbrain that plays a key role in integrating the inputs from the different senses into a single coherent perception

suprachiasmatic nucleus

a tiny section of the hypothalamus that could be considered our biological clock

survey

A research method in which a researcher asks questions to a sample of individuals.

sympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body.

synapse

the area between two adjacent neurons, where neural communication occurs

synaptic plasticity

the brain’s ability to change its structure through tiny changes in the surfaces of neurons or in their ability to produce and release neurotransmitters

synaptogenesis

the formation of new synapses between neurons.

systematic desensitization

a behavior therapy in which a client learns to relax while imagining increasingly frightening situations related to his or her phobia

tangles

twisted protein fibers inside the brain’s neurons in Alzheimer’s disease patients

task switching

moving back-and-forth rapidly between tasks

taste buds

collections of taste receptors located throughout the tongue

telegraphic speech

rudimentary sentences that include only necessary words; usually two to three words in length

temperament

biologically-based differences in a person’s emotional and motor reactions to new stimuli, and tendencies regarding self-regulation

temporal lobes

the lobes of the cortex on the sides; they contain the primary auditory cortex

temporal resolution

the accuracy level of timing information from a brain scanning technique.

temporal segregation

a perceptual principle that says that objects that appear at the same time tend to be grouped together

tend-and-befriend response

the name given to the stress response that helps the individual cope by nurturing others and seeking social support

teratogen

a substance that can harm a developing fetus.

terminal buttonterminal buttons

the end section of axon branches, from where neurotransmitters are released

test-retest reliability

a technique for measuring reliability by examining the similarity of scores when the same individuals take a test multiple times

testes

male sex glands; they produce hormones and sperm.

testimonial

a report on the quality or effectiveness of some treatment, book, or product by an actual user

thalamus

an oval shaped forebrain structure that routes sensory information to other parts of the brain

theory

A statement or set of statements that explain and organize observations and generate hypotheses.

theory of mind

the realization that other people have thoughts, beliefs, desires, etc. that guide their behavior

theta waves

slower and less regular brain waves associated with Stage 1 / NREM 1 sleep

top-down processestop-down processing

perceptual processing that leads to recognition by beginning with the brain, which directs (via expectation and context effects) how recognition proceeds

transfer of training

the degree to which training carries over to other situations

transference

in psychodynamic therapy, the process in which a client transfers feelings harbored about a person from the past to the therapist

transformational leadership

leadership that encourages followers set aside their personal goals and adopt the goals of the organization as their own

transgender

denotes a person whose gender identity does not match their biological sex

transtheoretical theory of change

a theory that describes how people progress through five separate stages on the road to successful behavior change

trephination

an ancient “treatment” for psychological disorders that involved drilling into the skull to release evil spirits

triangular theory of love

Robert Sternberg’s theory that love involves passion, commitment, and emotional intimacy

twin studies

a method in behavior genetics in which identical twins, fraternal twins, and non-twin siblings are compared in order to assess heritability of a trait

tympanic membrane

the eardrum; it vibrates at the same rate as air molecules hitting it, which begins the process of translating the energy into neural signals for sounds

Type 1 thinking

fast, automatic, and emotional thinking

Type 2 thinking

slow, effortful, and logical thinking

unconditioned response

In classical conditioning, an organism’s automatic (unlearned) reaction to an unconditioned stimulus

unconditioned stimulus

In classical conditioning, the environmental event that leads to an automatic (unlearned) response

unconscious

the part of the personality consisting of thoughts that are not conscious and cannot be brought into consciousness

universality

aspects of emotions that are common across all humans because of our shared biology.

unrealistic optimism

the overestimation of the likelihood of desirable events or outcomes and the underestimation of the likelihood of undesirable events or outcomes

validity

whether a test measures what it is intended to measure

variable

A general characteristic of an individual that can take on a number of specific values.

variance

A measure of variability composed of the average squared difference of each individual score from the mean in a distribution.

vesicles

the storage sites for neurotransmitters in the axon, before they are released

violence

extreme aggression with the goal to seriously injure or kill another living being.

virtual reality exposure therapy

a behavior therapy related to systematic desensitization in which a client interacts with feared situations in a computer-generated environment

visual acuity

our ability to see fine details

Weber’s Law

a perceptual law that states that the difference threshold for a stimulus is related to the size of the comparison stimulus

Wernicke's area

an area in the left temporal lobe important for speech production along with Broca's area in the frontal lobe

working memory

a short-term memory storage system that holds information in consciousness for immediate use or to transfer it into long long-term memory

zone of proximal development

the level of skills that a child can perform while being helped by someone else

zygote

the cell that results when an egg is fertilized by a sperm cell